Cenicriviroc combination therapy for the treatment of fibrosis

ABSTRACT

Cenicriviroc (CVC) is an orally active antagonist of ligand binding to C—C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) and C—C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2). CVC blocks the binding of RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β to CCR5, and of MCP-1/CCL2 to CCR2. Methods of treating fibrosis and related conditions comprising co-administration of CVC with chemokine antagonists, FXR agonists, high dose vitamin E (&gt;400 iU/d), a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α) agonist, PPAR-γ agonist, and/or PPAR-δ agonist are provided herein.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates to pharmaceutical compositions containingcenicriviroc, methods for the preparation thereof, and their use in acombination therapy for the treatment of inflammation and connectivetissue diseases and disorders, such as fibrosis including NASH.

BACKGROUND

Cenicriviroc (also known as CVC) is the common name of(S,E)-8-(4-(2-Butoxyethoxy)phenyl)-1-(2-methylpropyl)-N-(4-(((1-propyl-1H-imidazol-5-yl)methyl)sulfinyl)phenyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrobenzo[b]azocine-5-carboxamide.The chemical structure of cenicriviroc mesylate appears in FIG. 1.Cenicriviroc binds to and inhibits the activity of the C—C chemokinereceptor type 2 (CCR2) and C—C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5)receptors (24). These receptors not only play a role in entry of virusessuch as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) into the cell, but also areimportant for the recruitment of immune cells to sites of injury.Inhibition of this receptor's activity may have an anti-inflammatoryeffect. More recently, the role that inflammation plays in thedevelopment of fibrosis has been examined [30]. It has been shown thatC—C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2) and CCR5 may play a role inpromoting hepatic fibrosis [3, 4, 5, 31 32].

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of treating fibrosisor a fibrotic disease or condition or condition in a subject in needthereof comprising co-administering to the subject a therapeuticallyeffective amount of cenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof; and oneor more additional active agents. In a further embodiment, theadditional active agent is selected from the group consisting of a GLP-1receptor agonist, a SGLT2 inhibitor, a DPP-4 inhibitor, an inhibitor ofToll-Like Receptor 4 signaling, an anti-TGFβ antibody, athiazolidinedione, a PPAR subtypes α and γ agonist, and an oral insulinsensitizer. In another further embodiment, the additional active agentis selected from the group consisting of liraglutide, canagliflozin,anagliptin, TAK-242, 1D11, MSDC-0602, pioglitazone, and rosiglitazone.

In one embodiment, the fibrosis or fibrotic disease or condition isliver fibrosis or renal fibrosis. In a further embodiment, the liverfibrosis is associated with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Inanother embodiment, the liver fibrosis is associated with non-alcoholicfatty liver disease (NAFLD). In a further embodiment, the liver fibrosisis associated with emerging cirrhosis. In another further embodiment,the liver fibrosis comprises non-cirrhotic hepatic fibrosis. In oneembodiment, the subject is infected by human immunodeficiency virus(HIV). In another embodiment, the subject has a disease or conditionselected from the group consisting of alcoholic liver disease, HIV andHCV co-infection, viral hepatitis (such as HBV or HCV infection), type 2diabetes mellitus (T2DM), metabolic syndrome (MS), and a combinationthereof.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treatingNASH in a subject in need thereof comprising co-administering to thesubject a therapeutically effective amount of cenicriviroc, or a salt orsolvate thereof; wherein the NASH is associated with type 2 diabetesmellitus (T2DM); and one or more additional active agents.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treatingNASH in a subject in need thereof comprising co-administering to thesubject a therapeutically effective amount of cenicriviroc, or a salt orsolvate thereof; wherein the NASH is associated with metabolic syndrome(MS); and one or more additional active agents.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treatingNASH in a subject in need thereof comprising co-administering to thesubject a therapeutically effective amount of cenicriviroc, or a salt orsolvate thereof; and one or more additional active agents; wherein theNASH is associated with HIV and HCV co-infection.

In one embodiment, the additional active agent is selected from thegroup consisting of a GLP-1 receptor agonist, a SGLT2 inhibitor, a DPP-4inhibitor, an inhibitor of Toll-Like Receptor 4 signaling, an anti-TGFβantibody, a thiazolidinedione, a PPAR subtypes α and γ agonist, and anoral insulin sensitizer. In a further embodiment, the additional activeagent is selected from the group consisting of liraglutide,canagliflozin, anagliptin, TAK-242, 1D11, MSDC-0602, pioglitazone, androsiglitazone.

In one embodiment, the cenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof isformulated as a pharmaceutical composition comprising cenicriviroc or asalt or solvate thereof and fumaric acid. In one embodiment, thecenicriviroc or salt or solvate thereof is formulated as an oralcomposition. In one embodiment, the cenicriviroc or salt or solvatethereof is administered once per day or twice per day. In anotherembodiment, the co-administration comprises simultaneous administration,sequential administration, overlapping administration, intervaladministration, continuous administration, or a combination thereof. Ina further embodiment, the co-administration is carried out for one ormore treatment cycles. In another embodiment, the co-administration iscarried out for 1 to 24 treatment cycles. In a further embodiment, eachof the treatment cycle comprises about 7 or more days. In yet a furtherembodiment, each of the treatment cycle comprises about 28 or more days.In another embodiment, the co-administration comprises one or moretreatment cycles, and each treatment cycle comprises about 28 days.

In one embodiment, the co-administration comprises oral administration,parenteral administration, or a combination thereof. In a furtherembodiment, the parentaeral administration comprises intravenousadministration, intraarterial administration, intramuscularadministration, subcutaneous administration, intraosseousadministration, intrathecal administration, or a combination thereof. Inone embodiment, cenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof isadministered orally; and the additional active agent is administeredorally or parenterally.

In one embodiment, the co-administration comprises simultaneousadministration. In a further embodiment, cenicriviroc or a salt orsolvate thereof and the additional active agent are co-administeredsimultaneously for about 28 days or more.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method furthercomprising detecting a level of one or more biological molecules in thesubject treated for fibrosis or the fibrotic disease or condition orcondition, and determining a treatment regimen based on an increase ordecrease in the level of one or more biological molecules, wherein thebiological molecule is selected from the group consisting oflipopolysaccharide (LPS), LPs-binding protein (LBP), 16S rDNA, sCD14,intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP), zonulin-1, Collagen 1a1and 3a1, TGF-β, fibronectin-1, hs-CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-33, fibrinogen,MCP-1, MIP-1α and -1β, RANTES, sCD163, TGF-β, TNF-α, a biomarker ofhepatocyte apoptosis such as CK-18 (caspase-cleaved and total), and acombination thereof.

In another embodiment, the method further comprises detecting a level ofone or biological molecules in the subject treated for fibrosis or thefibrotic disease or condition or condition, wherein an increase ordecrease in the level of one or more biological molecules compared to apredetermined standard level is predictive of the treatment efficacy offibrosis or the fibrotic disease or condition, wherein the biologicalmolecule is selected from the group consisting of lipopolysaccharide(LPS), LPS-binding protein (LBP), 16S rDNA, sCD14, intestinal fatty acidbinding protein (I-FABP), zonulin-1, Collagen 1a1 and 3a1, TGF-β,fibronectin-1, hs-CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-33, fibrinogen, MCP-1, MIP-1α and-1β, RANTES, sCD163, TGF-β, TNF-α, a biomarker of hepatocyte apoptosissuch as CK-18 (caspase-cleaved and total), α2-macroglobulin,apolipoprotein A1, haptoglobin, hyaluronic acid, hydroxyproline,N-terminal propeptide of collagen type III, tissue inhibitors ofmetalloproteinases, and a combination thereof. In one embodiment, theone or more biological molecules are measured in a biological samplefrom a subject treated for fibrosis or the fibrotic disease orcondition. In another embodiment, the biological sample is selected fromblood, skin, hair follicles, saliva, oral mucous, vaginal mucous, sweat,tears, epithelial tissues, urine, semen, seminal fluid, seminal plasma,prostatic fluid, pre-ejaculatory fluid (Cowper's fluid), excreta,biopsy, ascites, cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, brain, and tissue extractsample or biopsy sample.

The present invention also provides a pharmaceutical compositioncomprising a therapeutically effective amount of cenicriviroc, or a saltor solvate thereof; and one or more additional active agents. In oneembodiment, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or morepharmaceutically acceptable excipients. In a further embodiment, thepharmaceutically acceptable excipient comprises fumaric acid.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a combination packagecomprising

(a) at least one individual dose of cenicriviroc, or a salt or solvatethereof; and

(b) at least one individual dose of one or more additional active agent.

In another embodiment, the combination package further comprises aninstruction document providing a protocol for co-administering (a) and(b).

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method ofdistributing an antifibrotic agent comprising distributing to a subjecta predetermined amount of a first pharmaceutical composition comprisingcenicriviroc, or a salt or solvate thereof, in combination with apredetermined amount of a second pharmaceutical composition comprisingat least one or more active agents. In a further embodiment, the presentinvention provides a method of distributing an antifibrotic agentcomprising distributing to a subject a predetermined amount of a firstpharmaceutical composition comprising cenicriviroc, or a salt or solvatethereof, in combination with an instruction of administering the firstpharmaceutical composition with a predetermined amount of a secondpharmaceutical composition comprising at least one or more activeagents.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is the chemical formula of cenicriviroc mesylate.

FIG. 2 is a graph comparing the absolute bioavailability, in beagledogs, of cenicriviroc mesylate compounded as an oral solution with thatof cenicriviroc mesylate prepared by wet granulation and mixed withvarious acid solubilizer excipients.

FIG. 3 is a graph of the total impurity and degradant content ofdifferent cenicriviroc formulations subjected to accelerated stabilitytesting at 40° C. and 75% relative humidity when packaged with adesiccant.

FIG. 4 is a dynamic vapor sorption isotherm for different cenicrivirocformulations.

FIG. 5 shows the study schematic of the evaluation of CVC in mouse UUOmodel of renal fibrosis. Vehicle control and CVC administered BID;anti-TGF-β1 antibody, compound 1D11 (positive control) administered i.p.QD, once daily; CVC, cenicriviroc; ip, intraperitoneal; PBS, phosphatebuffered saline; QD, once daily; TGF, transforming growth factor; UUO,unilateral ureter occlusion

FIG. 6 shows the change in body weight (Day 5) in each treatment groupin mouse UUO model of renal fibrosis.

FIG. 7 shows the Collagen Volume Fraction (CVF; % area) score in eachtreatment group in mouse UUO model of renal fibrosis. Data presentedexclude a single outlier from an animal in the CVC 20 mg/kg/day group,which had a CVF value >2 standard deviations higher than any otheranimal in the group.

FIG. 8 shows the mRNA expression from renal cortical tissue ofsham-surgery

FIG. 9 shows the change in body weight until week 9 in animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose).

FIG. 10A-C shows the change in liver and body weight until week 9 inanimals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose). Panel A shows thechange in body weight, Panel B shows the change in liver weight, andPanel C shows the change in the liver-to body weight ratio.

FIG. 11A-F shows the whole blood and biochemistry of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 9. Panel A shows Wholeblood glucose, Panel B shows Plasma ALT, Panel C shows Plasma MCP-1,Panel D shows Plasma MIP-1β, Panel E shows Liver triglyceride, and PanelF shows Liver hydroxyproline.

FIG. 12 shows the HE-stained liver sections of animals treated withCenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 13 shows the NAFLD Activity score of animals treated withCenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 14 shows representative photomicrographs of Sirius red-stainedliver sections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose)at week 9.

FIG. 15 shows representative photomicrographs of F4/80-immunostainedliver sections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose)at week 9.

FIG. 16 shows the percentages of inflammation area of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 17 shows representative photomicrographs of F4/80 and CD206double-immunostained liver sections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc(low or high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 18 shows the percentages of F4/80 and CD206 double positive cellsof F4/80 positive cells of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low orhigh dose) at week 9.

FIG. 19 shows the representative photomicrographs of F4/80 and CD16/32double-immunostained liver sections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc(low or high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 20 shows the percentages of F4/80 and CD16/32 double positive cellsof F4/80 positive cells of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low orhigh dose) at week 9.

FIG. 21 shows the M1/M2 ratio of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (lowor high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 22 shows representative photomicrographs of oil red-stained liversections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week9.

FIG. 23 shows the percentages of fat deposition area of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 24 shows representative photomicrographs of TUNEL-positive cells inlivers of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week9.

FIG. 25 shows percentages of TUNEL-positive cells of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 9.

FIG. 26 shows quantitative RT-PCR of animals treated with Cenicriviroc(low or high dose) at week 9. The levels of TNF-α, MCP-1, Collagen Type1, and TIMP-1 were measured.

FIG. 27A-F shows raw data for quantitative RT-PCR of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 9. Panel A shows the levelsof 36B4, Panel B shows the levels of TNF-α, Panel C shows the levels ofTIMP-1, Panel D shows the levels of collagen type 1, Panel E shows thelevels of 36B4, and Panel f shows the levels of MCP-1.

FIG. 28 shows the body weight changes of animals treated withCenicriviroc (low or high dose) from 6 to 18 weeks.

FIG. 29 shows the survival curve of animals treated with Cenicriviroc(low or high dose) from 6 to 18 weeks.

FIG. 30A-C shows the body weight and liver weight at of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 18. Panel A shows Bodyweight, Panel B shows Liver weight, and Panel C shows Liver-to-bodyweight ratio.

FIG. 31A-C shows macroscopic appearance of livers of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 18. Panel A shows thelivers of animals treated with vehicle only, Panel B shows the livers ofanimals treated with low-dose Cenicriviroc, and Panel C shows the liversof animals treated with high-dose Cenicriviroc.

FIG. 32 shows the number of visible tumor nodules of animals treatedwith Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 18.

FIG. 33 shows the maximum diameter of visible tumor nodules of animalstreated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 18.

FIG. 34 shows representative photomicrographs of HE-stained liversections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week18.

FIG. 35 shows representative photomicrographs of GS-immunostained liversections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week18.

FIG. 36 shows representative photomicrographs of CD31-immunostainedliver sections of animals treated with Cenicriviroc (low or high dose)at week 18.

FIG. 37 shows percentages of CD31-positive area of animals treated withCenicriviroc (low or high dose) at week 18.

FIG. 38 Proportion of Subjects With HIV-1 RNA <50 Copies/mL Over Time upto Week 48—Snapshot Algorithm—ITT—Study 202.

FIG. 39 shows the LS mean changes from baseline in sCD14 levels (106pg/mL) over time up to Week 48—ITT.

FIG. 40 shows the CVC (Pooled Data)- and EFV-treated subjects groupedaccording to APRI and FIB-4 fibrosis index scores at baseline, Week 24,and Week 48.

FIG. 41 shows the scatter plot of change from baseline APRI versuschange from baseline sCD14—Week 48 (ITT).

FIG. 42 shows a scatter plot of change from baseline FIB-4 versus changefrom baseline sCD14—Week 48 (ITT).

FIG. 43 shows the study design for studying the combination treatmentcomprising CVC and an additional therapeutic agent.

FIG. 44 shows a preclinical combination study protocol in the CDAA NASHmodel. For prophylactic intervention, animals will receive CDAA diet andCVC or a standard chow diet and CVC for 22 weeks. For therapeuticintervention, animals receive CVC alone or in combination with OCA orGFT505.

FIG. 45 shows another preclinical combination study protocol in the CDAANASH model. Animals will receive CDAA diet only, therapeuticintervention (e.g. liraglutide, ipragliflozin or canagliflozin,alogliptin, or compound 1D11), or CVC in combination with a therapeuticintervention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

It should be understood that singular forms such as “a,” “an,” and “the”are used throughout this application for convenience, however, exceptwhere context or an explicit statement indicates otherwise, the singularforms are intended to include the plural. Further, it should beunderstood that every journal article, patent, patent application,publication, and the like that is mentioned herein is herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety and for all purposes. Allnumerical ranges should be understood to include each and everynumerical point within the numerical range, and should be interpreted asreciting each and every numerical point individually. The endpoints ofall ranges directed to the same component or property are inclusive, andintended to be independently combinable.

Definitions

Except for the terms discussed below, all of the terms used in thisApplication are intended to have the meanings that one of skill in theart at the time of the invention would ascribe to them.

“About” includes all values having substantially the same effect, orproviding substantially the same result, as the reference value. Thus,the range encompassed by the term “about” will vary depending on contextin which the term is used, for instance the parameter that the referencevalue is associated with. Thus, depending on context, “about” can mean,for example, ±15%, ±10%, ±5%, ±4%, ±3%, ±2%, ±1%, or ±less than 1%.Importantly, all recitations of a reference value preceded by the term“about” are intended to also be a recitation of the reference valuealone. Notwithstanding the preceding, in this application the term“about” has a special meaning with regard to pharmacokinetic parameters,such as area under the curve (including AUC, AUC_(t), and AUC_(∞))C_(max), T_(max), and the like. When used in relationship to a value fora pharmacokinetic parameter, the term “about” means from 80% to 125% ofthe reference parameter.

“Cenicriviroc” refers to the chemical compound(S)-8-[4-(2-Butoxyethoxy)phenyl]-1-isobutyl-N-(4-{[(1-propyl-1H-imidazol-5-yl)methyl]sulfinyl}phenyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-benzazocine-5-carboxamide(structure shown below). Details of the composition of matter ofcenicriviroc are disclosed in US Patent Application Publication No.2012/0232028 which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entiretyfor all purposes. Details of related formulations are disclosed in U.S.Application No. 61/823,766 which is hereby incorporated by reference inits entirety for all purposes.

“Compound of the present invention” or “the present compound” refers tocenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof.

“Substantially similar” means a composition or formulation thatresembles the reference composition or formulation to a great degree inboth the identities and amounts of the composition or formulation.

“Pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to a material or method that can beused in medicine or pharmacy, including for veterinary purposes, forexample, in administration to a subject.

“Salt” and “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” includes both acid andbase addition salts. “Acid addition salt” refers to those salts thatretain the biological effectiveness and properties of the free bases,which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable, and which areformed with inorganic acids and organic acids. “Base addition salt”refers to those salts that retain the biological effectiveness andproperties of the free acids, which are not biologically or otherwiseundesirable, and which are prepared from addition of an inorganic baseor an organic base to the free acid. Examples of pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts include, but are not limited to, mineral or organicacid addition salts of basic residues such as amines; alkali or organicaddition salts of acidic residues; and the like, or a combinationcomprising one or more of the foregoing salts. The pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts include salts and the quaternary ammonium salts of theactive agent. For example, acid salts include those derived frominorganic acids such as hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric, sulfamic,phosphoric, nitric and the like; other acceptable inorganic saltsinclude metal salts such as sodium salt, potassium salt, cesium salt,and the like; and alkaline earth metal salts, such as calcium salt,magnesium salt, and the like, or a combination comprising one or more ofthe foregoing salts. Pharmaceutically acceptable organic salts includessalts prepared from organic acids such as acetic, propionic, succinic,glycolic, stearic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, pamoic,maleic, hydroxymaleic, phenylacetic, glutamic, benzoic, salicylic,mesylic, esylic, besylic, sulfanilic, 2-acetoxybenzoic, fumaric,toluenesulfonic, methanesulfonic, ethane disulfonic, oxalic, isethionic,HOOC—(CH₂)_(n)—COOH where n is 0-4, and the like; organic amine saltssuch as triethylamine salt, pyridine salt, picoline salt, ethanolaminesalt, triethanolamine salt, dicyclohexylamine salt,N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine salt, and the like; and amino acid saltssuch as arginate, asparginate, glutamate, and the like; or a combinationcomprising one or more of the foregoing salts.

In one embodiment, the acid addition salt of cenicriviroc iscenicriviroc mesylate, e.g.,(S)-8-[4-(2-Butoxyethoxy)phenyl]-1-isobutyl-N-(4-{[(1-propyl-1H-imidazol-5-yl)methyl]sulfinyl}phenyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-benzazocine-5-carboxamidemonomethanesulfonoate. In one embodiment, the cenicriviroc mesylate is acrystalline material, such as a pale greenish-yellow crystalline powder.In one embodiment, the cenicriviroc mesylate is freely soluble inglacial acetic acid, methanol, benzyl alcohol, dimethylsulfoxide, andN,N-dimethylformamide; soluble in pyridine and acetic anhydride; andsparingly soluble in 99.5% ethanol; slightly soluble in acetonitrile,1-octanol, and tetrahydrofuran; and practically insoluble in ethylacetate and diethylether. In one embodiment, the cenicriviroc mesylateis freely soluble in aqueous solution from pH 1 to 2; sparingly solubleat pH 3 and practically insoluble from pH 4 to 13 and in water.

“Solvate” means a complex formed by solvation (the combination ofsolvent molecules with molecules or ions of the active agent of thepresent invention), or an aggregate that consists of a solute ion ormolecule (the active agent of the present invention) with one or moresolvent molecules. In the present invention, the preferred solvate ishydrate.

“Pharmaceutical composition” refers to a formulation of a compound ofthe disclosure and a medium generally accepted in the art for thedelivery of the biologically active compound to mammals, e.g., humans.Such a medium includes all pharmaceutically acceptable carriers,diluents or excipients therefor.

“Treating” includes ameliorating, mitigating, and reducing the instancesof a disease or condition, or the symptoms of a disease or condition.

“Administering” includes any mode of administration, such as oral,subcutaneous, sublingual, transmucosal, parenteral, intravenous,intra-arterial, buccal, sublingual, topical, vaginal, rectal,ophthalmic, otic, nasal, inhaled, intramuscular, intraosseous,intrathecal, and transdermal, or a combination thereof. “Administering”can also include prescribing or filling a prescription for a dosage formcomprising a particular compound. “Administering” can also includeproviding directions to carry out a method involving a particularcompound or a dosage form comprising the compound.

“Therapeutically effective amount” means the amount of an activesubstance that, when administered to a subject for treating a disease,disorder, or other undesirable medical condition, is sufficient to havea beneficial effect with respect to that disease, disorder, orcondition. The therapeutically effective amount will vary depending onthe chemical identity and formulation form of the active substance, thedisease or condition and its severity, and the age, weight, and otherrelevant characteristics of the patient to be treated. Determining thetherapeutically effective amount of a given active substance is withinthe ordinary skill of the art and typically requires no more thanroutine experimentation.

Fibrosis:

Fibrosis is the formation of excess fibrous connective tissue in anorgan or tissue in a reparative or reactive process. This can be areactive, benign, or pathological state. The deposition of connectivetissue in the organ and/or tissue can obliterate the architecture andfunction of the underlying organ or tissue. Fibrosis is thispathological state of excess deposition of fibrous tissue, as well asthe process of connective tissue deposition in healing.

Fibrosis is similar to the process of scarring, in that both involvestimulated cells laying down connective tissue, including collagen andglycosaminoglycans. Cytokines which mediate many immune and inflammatoryreactions play a role in the development of fibrosis. Hepatocyte damageresulting from factors such as fat accumulation, viral agents, excessivealcohol consumption, hepatoxins, inevitably triggers an inflammatoryimmune response. The increased production of cytokines and chemokines inthe liver leads to recruitment of pro-inflammatory monocytes (precursorcells) that subsequently mature into pro-inflammatory macrophages.Pro-inflammatory macrophages are pro-fibrogenic in nature and ultimatelylead to the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) that areprimarily responsible for the deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM).

Infiltration of various immune cell populations, resulting ininflammation, is a central pathogenic feature following acute- andchronic liver injury. Chronic liver inflammation leads to continuoushepatocyte injury which can lead to fibrosis, cirrhosis, ESLD, and HCC.Interactions between intra-hepatic immune cells lead to increasedactivation and migration of Kupffer cells and HSCs and are criticalevents for developing liver fibrosis. Additionally, there is increasingevidence of the role of CCR2 and CCR5 in the pathogenesis of liverfibrosis [1-7,9, 31]. These members of the C—C chemokine family areexpressed by pro-fibrogenic cells including pro-inflammatory monocytesand macrophages, Kupffer cells, and HSCs [1-4]. CCR2 signaling plays animportant role in the pathogenesis of renal fibrosis through regulationof bone marrow-derived fibroblasts [8]. CCR2- and CCR5-positivemonocytes as well as CCR5-positive T lymphocytes are attracted bylocally released MCP-1 and RANTES, and can contribute to chronicinterstitial inflammation in the kidney [10, 11]. In rodents, CVC hashigh distribution in the liver, mesenteric lymph node, and intestinealso described as the gut-liver axis. Disruption of the intestinalmicrobiota and its downstream effects on the gut-liver axis both play animportant role in metabolic disorders such as obesity, non-alcoholicfatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)[16, 23].

Table 1 lists chemokines expressed by liver cells [30].

Cell Type Chemokine Hepatocytes MCP-1 (CCL2)_([38]), MIP-1 a(CCL3)_([74]), RANTES (CCL5)_([16,74]), MIP-38 (CCL19)_([75]), SLC(CCL21_([75]), Mig (CXCL9)_([64]), IP-10 (CXCL10)_([64]), CXCL16_([76]),LEC (CCL16)_([77]), IL-8 (CXCL8)_([78]) and Eotaxin (CCL11)_([41])Stellate cells MCP-1 (CCL2)_([52,60]), MIP-1a (CCL3)_([60]), MIP-18(CCL4)_([60]), CX₃CL1_([59]), KC (CXCL1)_([60]), MIP-2 (CXCL2)_([60]),IP-10 (CXCL10)_([60]) and SLC (CCL21)_([70]) Kupffer cells MCP1(CCL2)_([52.38,60,79]). MIP-1a (CCL3)_([80]) and MIP-3a (CCL20)_([56])Liver endothelial MCP-1 (CCL2)_([52]), IL-8 (CXCL8)_([81,76]), cellsCXCL16_([75]), Mi (CXCL9)_([69]), IP-10 (CXCL10)_([69]), CXCL16_([65]),CX₃CL1_([82]), SLC (CCL21)_([83]), Eotaxin (CCL11)_([41]) and TECK(CCL25)_([73]) *Summarizes selected experimental data from humans andmice/rats regarding the expression of chemokines by different residenthepatic cell populations upon activation or following liver injury. IP:Interferon-inducible protein; KC: Kupffer cell; LEC: Liver-expressedchemokine; MCP: Monocyte chemoattractant protein; MIP: Macrophageinflammatory protein; SLC: Secondary lymphoid-organ chemokine; TECK:Thymus-expressed chemokine

The activation of Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) plays an important rolein the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrosis. Following liver injury, hepaticstellate cells (HSCs) become activated and express a combination ofmatrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their specific tissue inhibitors(TIMPs) [32]. In the early phases of liver injury, HSCs transientlyexpress MMP-3, MMP-13, and uroplasminogen activator (uPA) and exhibit amatrix-degrading phenotype. Degradation of the extracellular matrix doesnot appear to be CCR2 or CCR5 dependent.

Activated HSCs can amplify the inflammatory response by inducinginfiltration of mono- and polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Infiltratingmonocytes and macrophages participate in the development of fibrosis viaseveral mechanisms, including increased secretion of cytokines andgeneration of oxidative stress-related products. Activated HSCs canexpress CCR2 and CCR5 and produce chemokines that include MCP-1, MIP-1α,MIP-1β and RANTES. CCR2 promotes HSC chemotaxis and the development ofhepatic fibrosis. In human liver diseases, increased MCP-1 is associatedwith macrophage recruitment and severity of hepatic fibrosis and primarybiliary cirrhosis. CCR5 stimulates HSC migration and proliferation.

In the later stages of liver injury and HSC activation, the patternchanges and the cells express a combination of MMPs that have theability to degrade normal liver matrix, while inhibiting degradation ofthe fibrillar collagens that accumulate in liver fibrosis. This patternis characterized by the combination of pro-MMP-2 and membrane type 1(MT1)-MMP expression, which drive pericellular generation of activeMMP-2 and local degradation of normal liver matrix. In addition there isa marked increase in expression of TIMP-1 leading to a more globalinhibition of degradation of fibrillar liver collagens by interstitialcollagenases (MMP-1/MMP-13). In liver injury associated with chronicalcoholic liver disease, the production of TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, as well asthe chemokine IL-8/CXCL8 is increased. TNF-α is also an importantmediator of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. These pathways play asignificant role in the progression of liver fibrosis. Inhibiting theactivation of HSCs and accelerating the clearance of activated HSCs maybe effective strategies for resolution of hepatic fibrosis.

Chemokine families play important regulatory roles in inflammation.Members of this family include, but are not limited to CXC receptors andligands including but not limited to CXCR1, CXCR2, CXCR3, CXCR4, CXCR5,CXCR6, CXCR7, CXCR8, CXCR9, CXCR10, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL4, CXCL5,CXCL6, CXCL7, CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, CXCL12, CXCL13, CXCL14,CXCL15, CXCL16, and CXCL17; the CC chemokines and receptors includingbut not limited to CCL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL6, CCL7, CCL8, CCL9,CCL10, CCL11, CCL12, CCL13, CCL14, CCL15, CCL16, CCL17, CCL18, CCL19,CCL20, CCL21, CCR1, CCR2, CCR3, CCR4, CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, andCCR10; the C chemokines including but not limited to XCL1, XCL2, andXCR1; and the CX3C chemokines including but not limited to CS3CL1 andCX3CR1. These molecules may be upregulated in fibrotic organs ortissues. In further embodiments, these molecules may be downregulated infibrotic organs or tissues. In further embodiments, the molecules in thesignaling pathways of these chemokines may be upregulated in fibroticorgans or tissues. In further embodiments, the molecules in thesignaling pathways of these chemokines may be downregulated in fibroticorgans or tissues.

Fibrosis can occur in many tissues within the body including but notlimited to, the lungs, liver, bone marrow, joints, skin, digestivetract, lymph nodes, blood vessels, or heart and typically is a result ofinflammation or damage. Non-limiting examples of fibrosis, or a fibroticdisease and/or condition, include Pulmonary fibrosis, Idiopathicpulmonary fibrosis, Cystic fibrosis, Cirrhosis, Endomyocardial fibrosis,myocardial infarction, Atrial Fibrosis, Mediastinal fibrosis,Myelofibrosis, Retroperitoneal fibrosis, Progressive massive fibrosis,complications from pneumoconiosis, Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis,Crohn's Disease, Keloid, Scleroderma/systemic sclerosis, Arthrofibrosis,Peyronie's disease, Dupuytren's contracture, fibrosis associated withatherosclerosis, lymph node fibrosis, emerging cirrhosis, non-cirrhotichepatic fiborsis, renal fibrosis, and adhesive capsulitis.

Embodiments of Therapeutic Utilities:

The present invention provides a combination therapy for treatingfibrosis and/or fibrotic diseases and/or conditions. Anti-fibroticeffects of CVC in animal studies were observed when CVC treatment wasinitiated at the onset of liver injury (TAA) or soon after (TAA; HFD)but not once cirrhosis was established (TAA). This suggests thatanti-fibrotic effects of CVC may be more pronounced in populations withestablished liver fibrosis and at significant risk of diseaseprogression. These include: Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome(MS), HIV and HCV co-infection, or HCV infection, alcoholic liverdisease, viral hepatitis (such as HBV or HCV infection), emergingcirrhosis, non-cirrhotic hepatic fibrosis, and a combination thereof.

NASH

The combination therapy disclosed herein may be used to treat liverfibrosis resulting from Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH), a commonliver disease that affects 2 to 5 percent of Americans. Although liverdamage due to NASH has some of the characteristics of alcoholic liverdisease, it occurs in people who drink little or no alcohol. The majorfeature in NASH is fat in the liver, along with inflammation andhepatocyte damage (ballooning). NASH can be severe and can lead tocirrhosis, in which the liver is permanently damaged and scarred and nolonger able to work properly. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)is a common, often “silent”, liver disease associated with obesityrelated disorders, such as type-2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome,occurring in people who drink little or no alcohol and is characterizedby the accumulation of fat in the liver with no other apparent causes.[32-43] At the beginning of the NAFLD spectrum is simple steatosis,which is characterized by a build-up of fat within the liver. Liversteatosis without inflammation is usually benign and slow ornon-progressive. NASH is a more advanced and severe subtype of NAFLDwhere steatosis is complicated by liver-cell injury and inflammation,with or without fibrosis.

The rising prevalence of obesity-related disorders has contributed to arapid increase in the prevalence of NASH. Approximately 10% to 20% ofsubjects with NAFLD will progress to NASH [44].

NAFLD is the most common cause of chronic liver disease. [45] Most USstudies report a 10% to 35% prevalence rate of NAFLD; however, theserates vary with the study population and the method of diagnosis. [46]Since approximately one-third of the US population is considered obese,the prevalence of NAFLD in the US population is likely to be about30%.[46] One study has found that NAFLD affects approximately 27% to 34%of Americans, or an estimated 86 to 108 million patients [44] NAFLD isnot unique to the US. Reports from the rest of the world, includingBrazil, China, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sri Lanka, andTaiwan, suggest that the prevalence rate ranges from 6% to 35% (medianof 20%). [46] A study by the Gastroenterological Society ofAustralia/Australian Liver Association has found that NAFLD affects anestimated 5.5 million Australians, including 40% of all adults aged ≥50years. [47] An Australian study of severely obese patients found that25% of these patients had NASH. [48]

Liver biopsy is required to make a definitive diagnosis of NASH. In a USstudy of middle-aged individuals, the prevalence of histologicallyconfirmed NASH was 12.2%.[49] Current estimates place NASH prevalence atapproximately 9 to 15 million in the US (3% to 5% of the US population),with similar prevalence in the EU and China.[46, 50] The prevalence ofNASH in the obese population ranges from 10% to 56% (median of 33%).[46] In an autopsy series of lean individuals from Canada, theprevalence of steatohepatitis and fibrosis was 3% and 7%,respectively.[46] The prevalence of NASH is also increasing indeveloping regions, which has been attributed to people in these regionsstarting to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle and westernized diet [51]consisting of processed food with high fat and sugar/fructosecontent.[52]

NASH is a serious chronic liver disease defined by the presence ofhepatic steatosis and inflammation with hepatocyte injury, with orwithout fibrosis. [34] Chronic liver inflammation is a precursor tofibrosis, which can progress to cirrhosis, end-stage liver disease andhepatocellular carcinoma. In addition to insulin resistance, alteredlipid storage and metabolism, accumulation of cholesterol within theliver, oxidative stress resulting in increased hepatic injury, andbacterial translocation[34,53-56] secondary to disruption of gutmicrobiota (associated with high fructose-containing diet) have all beenimplicated as important co-factors contributing to progression ofNASH.[57-60] Due to the growing epidemic of obesity and diabetes, NASHis projected to become the most common cause of advanced liver diseaseand the most common indication for liver transplantation.[46, 61-63] Theburden of NASH, combined with a lack of any approved therapeuticinterventions, represents an unmet medical need.

In further embodiments, liver fibrosis is associated with emergingcirrhosis. In some embodiments, the cirrhosis is associated with alcoholdamage. In further embodiments, the cirrhosis is associated with ahepatitis infection, including but not limited to hepatitis B andhepatitis C infections, primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), primarysclerosing cholangitis, HIV infection, or fatty liver disease. In someembodiments, the present invention provides for methods of treatingsubjects at risk of developing liver fibrosis or cirrhosis.

In another embodiment, the fibrosis comprises non-cirrhotic hepaticfibrosis. In another further embodiment, the subject is infected byhuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In yet a further embodiment, thesubject is infected with a hepatitis virus, including but not limited toHCV (hepatitis C virus). In further embodiment, the subject hasdiabetes. In a further embodiment, the subject has type 2 diabetes. In afurther embodiment, the subject has type 1 diabetes. In a furtherembodiment, the subject has metabolic syndrome (MS). In a furtherembodiment, the subject has alcoholic liver disease. In a futherembodiment, the subject has viral hepatitis. In one embodiment, theviral hepatitis is caused by HBV infection. In another embodiment, theviral hepatitis is caused by HCV infection. In further embodiments, thesubject has one or more of these diseases or disorders. In a furtherembodiment, the subject is at risk of developing one or more of thesediseases. In a further embodiment, the subject has insulin resistance.In further embodiments, the subject has increased blood glucoseconcentrations, high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol levels,elevated triglyceride levels, or is obese. In a further embodiment, thesubject has Polycystic ovary syndrome.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of treatment, whereinthe cenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof is coadministered with oneor more additional active agents. In a further embodiment, theadditional active agent is an anti-inflammatory agent. In a furtherembodiment, the additional active agent is a chemokine receptorantagonist. In a further embodiment, the additional active agentinhibits the binding of a chemokine to a chemokine receptor. In afurther embodiment, the additional active agent inhibits the binding ofligand to CCR1. In a further embodiment, the additional active agentinhibits the binding of CCR5 ligands to CCR1. In a further embodiment,the one or more additional therapeutic agents can suppress hepaticapolipoprotein CIII expression, suppress cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase(CYP7A1) expression, induce high-density lipoprotein-mediatedtranshepatic cholesterol efflux, protect against cholestatic liverdamage, attenuate liver inflammation and/or fibrosis, decrease hepaticlipid accumulation, and/or inhibit proinflammatory and/or profibroticgene expression. In one embodiment, the one or more additionaltherapeutic agents are selected from the group including, but notlimited to, a farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist, a peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α) agonist, PPAR-γ agonist,PPAR-δ agonist, high dose vitamin E (>400 iU/d), a GLP-1 receptoragonist, a SGLT2 inhibitor, a DPP-4 inhibitor, an inhibitor of Toll-LikeReceptor 4 signaling, an anti-TGFβ antibody, a thiazolidinedione, a PPARsubtypes α and γ agonist, and an oral insulin sensitizer, obeticholicacid,3-[2-[2-Chloro-4-[[3-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-5-(1-methylethyl)-4-isoxazolyl]methoxy]phenyl]ethenyl]benzoicacid (GW4064),2-methyl-2-[[4-[2-[[(cyclohexylamino)carbonyl](4-cyclohexylbutyl)amino]ethyl]phenyl]thio]-propanoicacid (GW7647), and 2-[2,6dimethyl-4-[3-[4-(methylthio)phenyl]-3-oxo-1(E)-propenyl]phenoxyl]-2-methylpropanoicacid (GFT505),3-(3,4-Difluorobenzoyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-1,1-dimethylazepino[4,5-b]indole-5-carboxylicacid 1-methylethyl ester (WAY-36245), Bile Acid Derivatives (e.g.INT-767, INT-777), Azepino[4,5-b]indoles,1-[(4-Chlorophenyl)methyl]-3-[(1,1-dimethylethyl)thio]-α,α-dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-1H-Indole-2-propanoicacid (MK886),N-((2S)-2-(((1Z)-1-Methyl-3-oxo-3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)prop-1-enyl)amino)-3-(4-(2-(5-methyl-2-phenyl-1,3-oxazol-4-yl)ethoxy)phenyl)propyl)propanamide(GW6471), 2-[2,6dimethyl-4-[3-[4-(methylthio)phenyl]-3-oxo-1(E)-propenyl]phenoxyl]-2-methylpropanoicacid (GFT505), liraglutide, canagliflozin, anagliptin, TAK-242, 1D11,MSDC-0602, pioglitazone, and rosiglitazone, or a combination thereof.

Certain embodiments include methods for monitoring and/or predicting thetreatment efficacy of the present treatment as described herein. Suchmethods include detecting the level of one or more biological molecules,such as for example, biomarkers, in a subject (or in a biological samplefrom the subject) treated for fibrosis or a fibrotic disease orcondition, wherein an increase or decrease in the level of one or morebiological molecules compared to a predetermined standard levelindicates or is predictive of the treatment efficacy of the presenttreatment.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of treatment,comprising detecting the level of one or more biological molecules inthe subject treated for fibrosis or the fibrotic disease or condition,and determining a treatment regimen based on an increase or decrease inthe level of one or more biological molecules, wherein the biologicalmolecule is selected from the group consisting of lipopolysaccharide(LPS), LPS-binding protein (LBP), 16S rDNA, sCD14, intestinal fatty acidbinding protein (I-FABP), zonulin-1, Collagen 1a1 and 3a1, TGF-β,fibronectin-1, hs-CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-33, fibrinogen, MCP-1, MIP-1α and-1β, RANTES, sCD163, TGF-β, TNF-α, a biomarker of hepatocyte apoptosissuch as CK-18 (caspase-cleaved and total), or biomarkers of bacterialtranslocation such as LPS, LBP, sCD14, and I-FABP, α2-macroglobulin,apolipoprotein A1, haptoglobin, hyaluronic acid, hydroxyproline,N-terminal propeptide of collagen type III, tissue inhibitors ofmetalloproteinases, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of treatment,comprising detecting the level of one or biological molecules in thesubject treated for fibrosis or the fibrotic disease or condition,wherein an increase or decrease in the level of one or more biologicalmolecules compared to a predetermined standard level is predictive ofthe treatment efficacy of fibrosis or the fibrotic disease or condition.

In a further embodiment, the one or more biological molecules aremeasured in a biological sample from a subject treated for fibrosis orthe fibrotic disease or condition. In yet a further embodiment, thebiological sample is selected from blood, skin, hair follicles, saliva,oral mucous, vaginal mucous, sweat, tears, epithelial tissues, urine,semen, seminal fluid, seminal plasma, prostatic fluid, pre-ejaculatoryfluid (Cowper's fluid), excreta, biopsy, ascites, cerebrospinal fluid,lymph, brain, and tissue extract sample or biopsy sample.

CDAA Mouse Model of NASH

The choline-deficient, L-amino acid defined (CDAA) diet has been used asa rodent model of NASH, and is characterized by steatosis, inflammatorycell infiltration and fibrosis (Nakae et al. (1995) Toxic. Pathol.23(5):583-590). NASH can result by inhibition of the fatty acidoxidation in hepatocytes. Mice on the CDAA diet do not gain weight orhave changes in peripheral insulin sensitivity (Kodama et al (2009)Gastroenterology 137(4):1467-1477). The CDAA model, like the MCD model,can be used to study the inflammatory and fibrotic elements of the NASHspectrum.

Combination Therapy:

The compound of the invention may be used alone or in combination withone or more additional active agents. The one or more additional activeagents may be any compound, molecule, or substance which can exerttherapeutic effect to a subject in need thereof. The one or moreadditional active agents may be “co-administered”, i.e, administeredtogether in a coordinated fashion to a subject, either as separatepharmaceutical compositions or admixed in a single pharmaceuticalcomposition. By “co-administered”, the one or more additional activeagents may also be administered simultaneously with the presentcompound, or be administered separately with the present compound,including at different times and with different frequencies. The one ormore additional active agents may be administered by any known route,such as orally, intravenously, subcutaneously, intramuscularly, nasally,and the like; and the therapeutic agent may also be administered by anyconventional route. In many embodiments, at least one and optionallyboth of the one or more additional active agents may be administeredorally.

These one or more additional active agents include, but are not limitedto, agents that suppress hepatic apolipoprotein CIII expression,suppress cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression, inducehigh-density lipoprotein-mediated transhepatic cholesterol efflux,protect against cholestatic liver damage, attenuate liver inflammationand/or fibrosis, decrease hepatic lipid accumulation, inhibitproinflammatory and/or profibrotic gene expression, a farnesoid Xreceptor (FXR) agonist, and/or a peroxisome proliferator-activatedreceptor alpha (PPAR-α and delta) agonist, anti-inflammatory agents,chemokine receptor antagonists, or combination thereof. When two or moremedicines are used in combination, dosage of each medicine is commonlyidentical to the dosage of the medicine when used independently, butwhen a medicine interferes with metabolism of other medicines, thedosage of each medicine is properly adjusted. Each medicine may beadministered simultaneously or separately in a time interval of lessthan 12 hours. A dosage form as described herein, such as a capsule, canbe administered at appropriate intervals. For example, once per day,twice per day, three times per day, and the like. In particular, thedosage form is administered once or twice per day. Even moreparticularly, the dosage form is administered once per day. Also, moreparticularly, the dosage form is administered twice per day.

In one embodiment, the one or more additional therapeutic agentsinclude, but are not limited to, a farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist,high dose vitamin E (>400 iU/d), a peroxisome proliferator-activatedreceptor alpha (PPAR-α) agonist, PPAR-γ agonist, and PPAR-δ agonist,obeticholic acid, pioglitazone,3-[2-[2-Chloro-4-[[3-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-5-(1-methylethyl)-4-isoxazolyl]methoxy]phenyl]ethenyl]benzoicacid (GW4064),2-methyl-2-[[4-[2-[[(cyclohexylamino)carbonyl](4-cyclohexylbutyl)amino]ethyl]phenyl]thio]-propanoicacid (GW7647), and 2-[2,6dimethyl-4-[3-[4-(methylthio)phenyl]-3-oxo-1(E)-propenyl]phenoxyl]-2-methylpropanoicacid (GFT505),3-(3,4-Difluorobenzoyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-1,1-dimethylazepino[4,5-b]indole-5-carboxylicacid 1-methylethyl ester (WAY-36245), Bile Acid Derivatives (e.g.INT-767, INT-777), Azepino[4,5-b]indoles,1-[(4-Chlorophenyl)methyl]-3-[(1,1-dimethylethyl)thio]-α,α-dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-1H-Indole-2-propanoicacid (MK886),N-((2S)-2-(((1Z)-1-Methyl-3-oxo-3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)prop-1-enyl)amino)-3-(4-(2-(5-methyl-2-phenyl-1,3-oxazol-4-yl)ethoxy)phenyl)propyl)propanamide(GW6471), 2-[2,6dimethyl-4-[3-[4-(methylthio)phenyl]-3-oxo-1(E)-propenyl]phenoxyl]-2-methylpropanoicacid (GFT505), or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include ananti-inflammatory agent. In a further embodiment, the additional activeagent is a chemokine receptor antagonist. In a further embodiment, theadditional active agent inhibits the binding of a chemokine ligand to achemokine receptor. In a further embodiment, the additional active agentinhibits the binding of ligand to CCR1. In a further embodiment, theadditional active agent inhibits the binding of CCR5 ligands to CCR1. Inone embodiment, chemokine ligands include, but are not limited to MCP-1(CCL2), MIP-1α (CCL3), RANTES (CCL5), MIP-3β (CCL19), SLC (CCL21), Mig(CXCL9), IP-10 (CXCL10), CSCL16, LEC (CCL16), IL-8 (CXCL8), Eotaxin(CCL11), MIP-1β (CCL4), CX₃CL1, KC (CXCL1), MIP-2 (CXCL2), MIP-3a(CCL20), CXCL16, TECK (CCL25), CCL6, CCL7, CCL8, CCL9, CCL10, CCL12,CCL13, CCL14, CCL15, CCL17, and CCL18 or combinations thereof. In oneembodiment, chemokine receptors include, but are not limited to CCR1,CCR2, CCR3, CCR4, CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10; the Cchemokines including but not limited to XCL1, XCL2, and XCR1; and theCX3C chemokines including but not limited to CS3CL1 and CX3CR1 orcombinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the additionaltherapeutic agent inhibits binding of CCR5 ligands (e.g. MIP-1α, RANTES)to CCR1. In one embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent isAplaviroc, Vicriviroc, Maraviroc, a chemokine peptide derivative, asmall molecule inhibitor, an antibody, Met-RANTES, AOP-RANTES,RANTES(3-68), Eotaxin(3-74), Met-Ckbeta7, I-Tac/E0H1, CPWYFWPC-Peptide,a small molecule derived from compound J113863, a small moleculetrans-isomer of compound J113863, SB-328437 (Glaxo-SmithKline),R0116-9132-238 (Roche Bioscience), Compound 25 (Merck), A-122058 (AbbottLaboratories), DPCA37818, DPC168, Compound 115 (Bristol-Myers Squibb),Piperidine antagonist, CP-481,715 (Pfizer), MLN3897 (Millennium/SanofiAventis), BX471 (structure shown below, Berlex/Scherring AG), AZD-4818(Astra-Zeneca), BMS-817399 (Bristol-Myers Squibb), CAM-3001 (Medimmune),CCX354-C(Chemo-Centryx), CCx915/MK-0812, INCB8696 (InCyte), RO5234444,GW766994, JC1, BKT140, propagermanium, Shikonin, BX471, and/orYM-344031.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a GLP-1receptor agonist. In one embodiment, GLP-1 receptor agonists include,but are not limited to, liraglutide, exenatide, lixisenatide,albiglutide, dulaglutide, semaglutide, OG217SC, and/or taspoglutide orcombinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the additionaltherapeutic agent is liraglutide.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a SGLT2Inhibitor. In one embodiment, SGLT2 Inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, Ipragliflozin, canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, remogliflozin,and/or empagliflozin, or combinations thereof. In one exemplaryembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is Ipragliflozin. In oneexemplary embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is canagliflozin.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a DPP-4inhibitor. In one embodiment, DPP-4 inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, sitagliptin, alogliptin, vildagliptin, saxagliptin,linagliptin, anagliptin, teneligliptin, gemigliptin, dutogliptin,berberine, trelagliptin, and/or lupeol, or combinations thereof. In oneexemplary embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is anagliptin.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an inhibitorof Toll-Like Receptor-4 signaling. In one embodiment, the additionaltherapeutic agent is a small molecule inhibitor of Toll-Like Receptor-4signaling. In one embodiment, inhibitors of Toll-Like Receptor-4signaling include, but are not limited to, TAK-242, eritoran,amitriptyline, cyclobenzaprine, ibudilast, imipramine, ketotifen,mianserin, naloxone, naltrexone, propentofylline, and/or LPS-RS, orcombinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the additionaltherapeutic agent is TAK-242.

In one embodiment, the additional therapeutic agents include TGF-betainhibitors. In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents includean anti-TGFβ monoclonal antibody. In one embodiment, anti-TGFβmonoclonal antibodies include, but are not limited to, 1D11, CAT-192,Fresolimumab (GC1008) or combinations thereof. In one exemplaryembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is 1D11.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include athiazolidinedione. In one embodiment, the thiazolidinedione activatesPPARs (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors). In one embodiment,thiazolidinediones include, but are not limited to, pioglitazone and/orrohsiglitazone.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a PPARsubtypes α and γ agonist. In one embodiment, PPAR subtypes α and γagonists include, but are not limited to, saroglitazar, lobeglitazone,tesaglitazar, aleglitazar, and/or muraglitazar or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an oralinsulin sensitizer. In one embodiment, the oral insulin sensitizer isMSDC-0602.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a PPARαsubtype agonist. In one embodiment, PPARα subtype agonists include, butare not limited to, fibrate drugs, amphipathic carboxylic acids,clofibrate, gemfibrozil, ciprofibrate, bezafibrate, fenofibrate, and/orK877, or combinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, theadditional therapeutic agent is K877.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a MetAP2inhibitor. In one embodiment, MetAP2 inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, Beloranib, ZGN-839, XMT1107, fumagillin, and/or TNP-470, orcombinations thereof. In exemplary embodiments the MetAP2 inhibitor isBeloranib, ZGN-839, and/or XMT1107.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a methylatedxanthine derivative. In one embodiment, methylated xanthine derivativesinclude, but are not limited to, caffeine, aminophylline, IBMX,paraxanthine, pentoxifylline, theobromine, and/or theophylline, orcombinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the methylatedxanthine derivative is pentoxifylline.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a member ofthe pentraxin family of proteins. In one exemplary embodiment, thepentraxin protein is pentraxin-2.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a NADPHoxidase inhibitor. In one embodiment, NADPH oxidase inhibitors include,but are not limited to GKT136901, GKT137831, GKT-901, pyrazolopyridines,triazolopyrimidine derivatives, VAS2870, and/or VAS3947, or combinationsthereof. In exemplary embodiments, the NADPH oxidase inhibitor isGKT137831 and/or GKT-901.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a caspaseinhibitor. In one embodiment, the caspase inhibitor is a small moleculecaspase inhibitor. In one embodiment, the caspase inhibitor is apan-caspase inhibitor. In one embodiment, caspase inhibitors include,but are not limited to, VX-765, GS-9450, Emricasan, Pralnacasan,Sulfonamides, quinones, epoxyquinones, epoxyquinols, and/or nitric oxide(NO) donors or combinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, thecaspase inhibitor is Emricasan. In one exemplary embodiment, the caspaseinhibitor is GS-9450.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an ASK-1inhibitor. In one embodiment, ASK-1 inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, thioredoxin, GS-4997, TC ASK 10,3H-naphtho[1,2,3-de]quinoline-2,7-diones, and/or5-(5-Phenyl-furan-2-ylmethylene)-2-thioxo-thiazolidin-4-ones orcombinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the ASK-1 inhibitoris GS-4997.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a lysyloxidase-like 2 (LOXL-2) inhibitor. In one embodiment, lysyl oxidase-like2 (LOXL-2) inhibitor include, but are not limited to, anti-LOXL-2monoclonal antibodies, simtuzumab, β-aminoproprionitrile, small moleculeinhibitors, and/or PXS-4728A or combinations thereof. In one exemplaryembodiment, the lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL-2) inhibitor simtuzumab.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include asemicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO)/Vascular Adhesion Protein 1(VAP-1) inhibitor. In one embodiment, semicarbazide-sensitive amineoxidase (SSAO)/Vascular Adhesion Protein 1 (VAP-1) inhibitors include,but are not limited to, PXS4728A, PXS-4681A, Small molecule inhibitorsof SSAO/VAP-1, and/or PXS-4159A or combinations thereof. In oneexemplary embodiment, the SSAO/VAP-1 inhibitor is PXS4728A.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a ileal bileacid transporter. In one embodiment, ileal bile acid transportersinclude, but are not limited to, A3309, A4250, and/or eliobixibat orcombinations thereof. In exemplary embodiments, the ileal bile acidtransporter is A4250 or eliobixibat.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an apicalsodium-dependent bile acid transporter. In one embodiment, apicalsodium-dependent bile acid transporters include, but are not limited to,SHP626, GSK-2330672, 264W94, A4250, benzothiepine analogs, SC-435,and/or SC-635 or combinations thereof. In exemplary embodiments, theapical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter is SHP626 and/orGSK-2330672.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include amitochondrial target of thiazolidinediones (mToT) modulator. In oneembodiment, modulators of mitochondrial targets of thiazolidinediones(mToT) include, but are not limited to, mToT, MSDC-0160, and/orMSDC-0602 or combinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the mToTmodulator is mToT.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a cysteaminebitartrate. In one embodiment, cysteamine bitartrates include but arenot limited to, cysteamine, RP103, and/or Procysbi or combinationsthereof. In an exemplary embodiment, the cysteamine bitartrate isCysteamine.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a Toll-likereceptor 4 agonist. In one embodiment, Toll-like receptor 4 agonistsinclude, but are not limited to, synthetic peptides that mimic LPS,PAMPs, JKB-121, and/or VB201 or combinations thereof. In exemplaryembodiments, the Toll-like receptor 4 agonist is JKB-121 and/or VB201.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a acetyl-CoAcarboxylase (ACC) inhibitor. In one embodiment, acetyl-CoA carboxylase(ACC) inhibitors include, but are not limited to, soraphen A, smallmolecule ACC inhibitors, 5-(tetradecycloxy)-2-furoic acid (TOFA),andrimid, and/or NDI-010976 or combinations thereof. In an exemplaryembodiment, the ACC inhibitor is NDI-010976.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a fibroblastgrowth factor (FGF)19 hormone. In one embodiment, the FGF19 hormone isan engineered human FGF19 hormone. In an exemplary embodiment, the FGF19hormone is NGM282.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a fattyacid-bile acid conjugate (FABAC). In one embodiment, fatty acid-bileacid conjugates include, but are not limited to Aramchol and/or EBHU18or a combination thereof. In an exemplary embodiment, the fattyacid-bile acid conjugate is Aramchol.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include adiacylglycerol acyltransferase-1 inhibitor (DGAT-1). In one embodiment,diacylglycerol acyltransferase-1 inhibitors include, but are not limitedto AZD7687, pradigastat, XP620, and/or P7435 or a combination thereof.In exemplary embodiments, the diacylglycerol acyltransferase-1 inhibitoris pradigastat, and/or P7435.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include adiacylglycerol acyltransferase-2 inhibitor (DGAT-2). In one embodiment,diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2 inhibitors include, but are not limitedto H2-003, H2-005, ISIS-DGAT2Rx, and/or PF-06424439 or a combinationthereof. In exemplary embodiments, the diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2inhibitor is ISIS-DGAT2Rx, and/or PF-06424439.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a P2Y13receptor agonist. In one embodiment, P2Y13 receptor agonists include,but are not limited to AR-C69931MX, 2MeSADP, Ap4A and/or CER-209 or acombination thereof. In an exemplary embodiments, the diacylglycerolacyltransferase-2 inhibitor is CER-209.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include ananti-inflammatory cytokine. In one embodiment, anti-inflammatorycytokines include, but are not limited to, IL-10, IL-4, IL-13, IL-35,TGF-β, or combinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, theadditional therapeutic agent is IL-10.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include moleculesthat inhibit inflammatory cytokines. In one embodiment, inflammatorycytokines that can be inhibited include, but are not limited to, TNF-α,IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IFNγ, TGF-β, or combinations thereof. In oneembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is a TNF-α inhibitor. Inone embodiment, the TNF-α inhibitor is pentoxyphylline, thalidomide,pirfenidone, an anti-TNF-α antibody, or combinations thereof. In oneexemplary embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent ispentoxyphylline. In another exemplary embodiment, the additionaltherapeutic agent is etanercept

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an antiviraldrug. In one embodiment, antiviral drugs include, but are not limitedto, interferons, IFN-α2b, pegylated interferons, PEG-IFN-α2b, IFN-γ1b,IFN-α2α, PEG-IFNα2a, IFN-α or combinations thereof. In one exemplaryembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is IL-10.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include anangiotensin II receptor antagonist. In one embodiment, angiotensin IIreceptor antagonists include, but are not limited to, losartan,telmisartan, irbesartan, azilsartan, olmesartan, valsartan, fimasartan,candesartan, or combinations thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, theadditional therapeutic agent is losartan. In another exemplaryembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is candesartan.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a monoclonalantibody. In one embodiment, monoclonal antibodies include, but are notlimited to, anti-LOXL2, GS-6624, anti-CTGF, GF-3019, anti-MCP1,anti-CCL2, anti-MCP1/CCL2, CNT0888, anti-IL-13, QAX576, anti-IL-4,anti-Il-4/13, SAR156597, anti-αVβ6, STX-100, anti-IL-17A, anti-IL-17R,fresolimumab, FG-3019, secukinumab, lxekizumab, brodalumab, RG4934,NI-1401, SCH 900117, ABT-122, MDS-1338, anti-CXCR4, anti-Mir21, orcombinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include anutritional supplement. In one embodiment, nutritional supplementsinclude, but are not limited to, tocopherol, viusid, fuzheng huayu,glycyrrhizic acid, vitamin E, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin D3, omega-3fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, diamel, orcombinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include anantiretroviral therapy. In one embodiment, antiretroviral therapiesinclude, but are not limited to, HIV antiretroviral therapy, entryinhibitors, NRTI, NtRTI, NNRTI, integrase inhibitors, proteaseinhibitors, raltegravir, ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor,lamivudine, adefovir dipivoxil, tenofovir disproxil fumate, entecavirorcombinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include anantioxidant. In one embodiment, antioxidants include, but are notlimited to, salvianolic acid B, NAC, α-lipoic acid, or combinationsthereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include anantiproliferative agent. In one embodiment, antiproliferative agentsinclude, but are not limited to, oltipraz, tetrathiomolybdate,Mycophenolate Mofetil (MMF), Azathioprine, Sirolimus, or combinationsthereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an ET1antagonist. In one embodiment, ET1 antagonists include, but are notlimited to, ETI_(A)R antagonist, ET1_(B)R antagonist, dual ET1_(A)R andET1_(B)R antagonist, bosentan, ambrisentan, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a kinaseinhibitor. In one embodiment, kinase inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, imatinib, afatinib, axitinib, bosutinib, cetuximab,crizotinib, dasatinib, erlotinib, fostamatinib, gefitinib, ibrutinib,imatinib, lapatinib, lenvatinib, mubritinib, nitendanib, nilotinib,pazopanib, pegaptanib, ruxolitinib, sorafenib, sunitinib, SU6656,vandetanib, vemurafenib, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include asomatostatin mimetic. In one embodiment, somatostatin mimetics include,but are not limited to, octreotide, Lanreotide (INN), lanreotideacetate, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a JNKinhibitor. In one exemplary embodiment the additional therapeutic agentis CC-930.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a CXCR2antagonist. In one embodiment, CXCR2 antagonists include, but are notlimited to, SB656933, reparixin, DF2162, AZ-10397767, SB332235,SB468477, SCH572123, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a HMGRinhibitor. In one embodiment, HMGR inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, simvastatin, lovastatin, compactin (mevastatin),prevastatin, cerivastatin, rosuvastatin, statins, or combinationsthereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an mTORinhibitor. In one embodiment, mTOR inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, everolimus, rapamycin, temsirolimus, ridaforolimus,deforolimus, ATP-competitive mTOR kinase inhibitors, or combinationsthereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include acorticosteroid. In one embodiment, corticosteroids include, but are notlimited to, hydrocortisone, cortisone acetate, tixocortol pivalate,pednisolone, prednisone, methylprednisolone, triamcinolone acetonide,triamcinolone alcohol, mometasone, amcinonide, budesonide, desonide,fluocinoninde, flucinolone acetonide, halcinonide, betamethasome,betamethasone sodium phosphate, dexamethasone, dexamethasone sodiumphosphate, flucortolone, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include animmunosuppressive agent. In one embodiment, immunosuppressive agentsinclude, but are not limited to, cyclosporine A, mycophenolic acid,azathioprine, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a lipaseinhibitor. In one embodiment, lipase inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, orlistat, Xenical®, Alli®, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a leptinanalog. In one exemplary embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent ismetreleptin.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include diabetestherapeutic. In one exemplary embodiment, diabetes therapeutics include,but are not limited to, metformin, sulfonylureas, meglitinides,thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, SGLT2inhibitors, insulin therapy, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include aneurochemical receptor antagonist. In one embodiment, neurochemicalreceptor antagonists include, but are not limited to, CBR1 antagonist,LH-21, opioid receptor antagonist, naltrexone, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include aneurochemical receptor agonist. In an exemplary embodiment, theadditional therapeutic agent is a CB2R agonist.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a Hh orHh(R) (SMO) antagonist. In one embodiment, Hh or Hh(R) (SMO) antagonistsinclude, but are not limited to, vismodegib, GDC-0449, Hh(R) blocker,LY2940680, SMO antagonist, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include CCR5antagonist. In one embodiment, CCR5 antagonists include, but are notlimited to, TBR-652, vicriviroc, aplaviroc, maraviroc, INCB009471, orcombinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include CXCR4antagonist. In one embodiment, CXCR4 antagonists include, but are notlimited to, small-molecule inhibitors, monoclonal antibody inhibitors,BKT140, TG-0054, plerixafor, POL6326, MDX-1338, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include CXCR3antagonist. In one embodiment, CXCR3 antagonists include, but are notlimited to, small-molecule inhibitors, monoclonal antibody inhibitors,SCH 546738, AMG487, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a NOXinhibitor. In one embodiment, NOX inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, small-molecule inhibitors, monoclonal antibody inhibitors,GKT137831, VAS2870, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include animmunomodulator. In an exemplary embodiment, the additional therapeuticagent is copaxone.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a NOXinhibitor. In one embodiment, NOX inhibitors include, but are notlimited to, small-molecule inhibitors, monoclonal antibody inhibitors,GKT137831, VAS2870, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an AMPKagonist. In one embodiment, AMPK agonists include, but are not limitedto, metformin, phenformin, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide(AICAR), 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG), salicylate, A-769662, adiponectin, orcombinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a TGF-βpathway inhibitor. In one embodiment, TGF-β pathway inhibitors include,but are not limited to, antisense oligonucleotides, AP-12009, AP-11014,NovaRx, large molecule inhibitors, lerdelimumab, metelimumab, GC-1008,1D11, SR-2F, 2G7, small molecule inhibitors, LY-550410, Ly-580276,LY-364947, LY-2109761, LY-2157299, LY-573636, SB-431542, SD-208, SD-093,Ki-26894, Sm16, NPC-30345, A-83-01, SX-007, IN-1130, Trx-xFoxH1b,Trx-Lef1, antisense transfected tumor cells, soluble TGFβRII:Fc,lucanix, betaglycan/TGFβRIII, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include amyofibroblast recruitment inhibitor. In one embodiment, the additionaltherapeutic is AM152.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a anti-Th17MMP inducer. In one embodiment, the additional therapeutic isHalofuginone.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a adenosinereceptor A2A antagonist. In one embodiment, the additional therapeuticis ZM241385.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include apre-microRNA. In one embodiment, the pre-microRNA is a member of themiR-29 family. In one embodiment, the additional therapeutic is AM152.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include an agentthat inhibits a microRNA. In one embodiment, the agent that inhibits amicroRNA inhibits miR-122. In an exemplary embodiment, the additionaltherapeutic is Miravirsen.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include acannabinoid receptor 1 antagonist. In one embodiment, the cannabinoidreceptor 1 antagonists include, but are not limited to, rimonabant oranalogs thereof, diarylpyrazole derivatives, surinabant, AM251,ibipinabant, or combinations thereof.

In one embodiment, the additional therapeutic agents include thoselisted in Schuppan and Kim (2013) J. Clin. Invest. 123(5):1887-1901, thecontents of which are incorporated by, reference in its entirety for allpurposes. In one embodiment, one or more of the combinational use of theadditional therapeutic agents listed therein can be used in combinationwith CVC for treating fibrosis or fibrotic disease or condition asdescribed in the present application.

In one embodiment the additional therapeutic agents include a farnesoidX receptor (FXR) agonist. In one embodiment, farnesoid X receptor (FXR)agonists include, but are not limited to, cafestol, chenodeoxycholicacid, obeticholic acid (OCA), and/or fexaramine or combinations thereof.In one exemplary embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent isobeticholic acid (OCA).

Method of Co-Administration

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of treatingfibrosis or fibrotic disease or condition in a patient in need thereof.The method comprises co-administering to a patient in need thereof atherapeutically effective amount of at least one additional therapeuticagent disclosed above; and at least one compound of CVC as describedabove, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof. The term“patient” or “subject” includes humans and animals, preferably mammals.

In one embodiment, the method further comprises co-administering anadditional therapeutic agent. That is, the method comprisingco-administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeuticallyeffective amount of at least one additional therapeutic agent; and atleast one CVC as described above, or a salt, solvate, ester and/orprodrug thereof. The additional active agent can be any compound, agent,molecule, composition, or medication that has biological activity ortherapeutic effect. The additional active agent may (1) agonizefarnesoid X receptor (FXR); (2) agonize peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α); (3) suppress hepaticapolipoprotein CIII expression; (4) suppress cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression; (5) induce high-densitylipoprotein-mediated transhepatic cholesterol efflux; (6) protectagainst cholestatic liver damage; (7) attenuate liver inflammationand/or fibrosis; (8) decrease hepatic lipid accumulation; (9) inhibitproinflammatory and/or profibrotic gene expression, (10) act as ananti-inflammatory agent, and/or (11) inhibit chemokine binding.Preferably, the additional active agent is a farnesoid X receptor (FXR),peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α) agonist, orchemokine antagonist. As used herein, the term “farnesoid X receptor(FXR)” agonist is a drug or molecule that activates the farnesoid Xreceptor (FXR). As used herein, the term “peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α)” is a drug or moleculethat activates the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha(PPAR-α). As used herein, the term “chemokine antagonist” is a drug ormolecule that inhibits, decreases, abrogates, or blocks binding of achemokine to one or more of its cognate receptors. Examples of FXR andPPAR-α agonists include, but are not limited to, Px-102, fexaramine,farglitazar, obeticholic acid,3-[2-[2-Chloro-4-[[3-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-5-(1-methylethyl)-4-isoxazolyl]methoxy]phenyl]ethenyl]benzoicacid (GW4064),2-methyl-2-[[4-[2-[[(cyclohexylamino)carbonyl](4-cyclohexylbutyl)amino]ethyl]phenyl]thio]-propanoicacid (GW7647), and 2-[2,6dimethyl-4-[3-[4-(methylthio)phenyl]-3-oxo-1(E)-propenyl]phenoxyl]-2-methylpropanoicacid (GFT505),3-(3,4-Difluorobenzoyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-1,1-dimethylazepino[4,5-b]indole-5-carboxylicacid 1-methylethyl ester (WAY-36245), Bile Acid Derivatives (e.g.INT-767, INT-777), Azepino[4,5-b]indoles,1-[(4-Chlorophenyl)methyl]-3-[(1,1-dimethylethyl)thio]-α,α-dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-1H-Indole-2-propanoicacid (MK886),N-((2S)-2-(((1Z)-1-Methyl-3-oxo-3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)prop-1-enyl)amino)-3-(4-(2-(5-methyl-2-phenyl-1,3-oxazol-4-yl)ethoxy)phenyl)propyl)propanamide(GW6471), 2-[2,6dimethyl-4-[3-[4-(methylthio)phenyl]-3-oxo-1(E)-propenyl]phenoxyl]-2-methylpropanoicacid (GFT505), or a combination thereof. Examples of chemokineantagonists include but are not limited to, Aplaviroc, Vicriviroc,Maraviroc, Met-RANTES, AOP-RANTES, RANTES (3-68), Eotaxin(3-74),Met-Ckbeta7, I-Tac/E0H1, CPWYFWPC-Peptide, a small molecule derived fromcompound J113863, Small molecule trans-isomer of compound J113863,SB-328437 (Glaxo-SmithKline), R0116-9132-238 (Roche Bioscience),Compound 25 (Merck), A-122058 (Abbott Laboratories), DPCA37818, DPC168,Compound 115 (Bristol-Myers Squibb), Piperidine antagonist, CP-481,715(Pfizer), MLN3897 (Millennium/Sanofi Aventis), BX471 (Berlex/ScherringAG), AZD-4818 (Astra-Zeneca), BMS-817399 (Bristol-Myers Squibb),CAM-3001 (Medimmune), CCX354-C(Chemo-Centryx), CCx915/MK-0812, INCB8696(InCyte), R05234444, GW766994, JC1, BKT140, propagermanium, Shikonin,BX471, and/or YM-344031.

The term “therapeutically effective amount”, as used herein, denotes anamount that can produce one or more intended biological effects in apatient, such as ameliorating, relieving, improving, or remedying theconditions, symptoms, and/or effects of the fibrosis and/or fibroticdisease or condition in a subject. The amount refers to the amount,given in combination, of (a) an additional therapeutic agent and (b)CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof. The term“therapeutically effective amount” may also refer to the amount, givenin combination, of (a) an additional therapeutic, and (b) CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof. It is understood to oneskilled in the art that the therapeutically effective amount may varyfor each patient depending on the individual patient's condition.

In one embodiment, CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugthereof, is administered at a dose from about 30 mg/day to about 500mg/day. In one embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent isadministered at a dose from about 5 mg/m2 to about 3 g/m2.

The administered dose may be expressed in units of mg/m2/day in which apatient's body surface area (BSA) may be calculated in m2 using variousavailable formulae using the patient's height and weight. Theadministered dose may alternatively be expressed in units of mg/daywhich does not take into consideration the patient's BSA. It isstraightforward to convert from one unit to another given a patient'sheight and weight.

The term “co-administration” or “coadministration” refers toadministration of (a) an additional therapeutic agent and (b) CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, together in a coordinatedfashion. For example, the co-administration can be simultaneousadministration, sequential administration, overlapping administration,interval administration, continuous administration, or a combinationthereof.

In one embodiment, the co-administration is carried out for one or moretreatment cycles. By “treatment cycle”, it is meant a pre-determinedperiod of time for co-administering the additional therapeutic agent andCVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof. Typically, thepatient is examined at the end of each treatment cycle to evaluate theeffect of the present combination therapy. In one embodiment, theco-administration is carried out for 1 to 48 treatment cycles. Inanother embodiment, the co-administration is carried out for 1 to 36treatment cycles. In another embodiment, the co-administration iscarried out for 1 to 24 treatment cycles.

In one embodiment, each of the treatment cycle has about 3 or more days.In another embodiment, each of the treatment cycle has from about 3 daysto about 60 days. In another embodiment, each of the treatment cycle hasfrom about 5 days to about 50 days. In another embodiment, each of thetreatment cycle has from about 7 days to about 28 days. In anotherembodiment, each of the treatment cycle has 28 days. In one embodiment,the treatment cycle has about 29 days. In another embodiment, thetreatment cycle has about 30 days. In another embodiment, the treatmentcycle has about 31 days. In another embodiment, the treatment cycle hasabout a month-long treatment cycle. In another embodiment, the treatmentcycle is any length of time from 3 weeks to 6 weeks. In anotherembodiment, the treatment cycle is any length of time from 4 weeks to 6weeks. In yet another embodiment, the treatment cycle is 4 weeks. Inanother embodiment, the treatment cycle is one month. In anotherembodiment, the treatment cycle is 5 weeks. In another embodiment, thetreatment cycle is 6 weeks.

Depending on the patient's condition and the intended therapeuticeffect, the dosing frequency for each of the additional therapeuticagent, and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, mayvary from once per day to six times per day. That is, the dosingfrequency may be once per day, twice per day, three times per day, fourtimes per day, five times per day, or six times per day.

There may be one or more void days in a treatment cycle. By “void day”,it is meant a day when neither the additional therapeutic agent nor CVC,or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered. Inother words, none of the additional therapeutic agent and the CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered on a voidday. Any treatment cycle must have at least one non-void day. By“non-void day”, it is meant a day when at least one of the additionaltherapeutic agent and the CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugthereof, is administered.

By “simultaneous administration”, it is meant that the additionaltherapeutic agent and the CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugthereof, are administered on the same day. For the simultaneousadministration, the additional therapeutic agent and the CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, can be administered at the sametime or one at a time.

In one embodiment of the simultaneous administration, the CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered from 1 to 4times per day for 7 to 28 days; and the additional therapeutic agent isadministered 1 to 4 times per day for 7 to 28 days. In anotherembodiment of the simultaneous administration, the CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered once per day for28 days; and the additional therapeutic agent is administered once perday for 28 days.

By “sequential administration”, it is meant that during a period of twoor more days of continuous co-administration without any void day, onlyone of the additional therapeutic agent and the CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered on any given day.

In one embodiment of the sequential administration, the CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered from 1 to 4 timesper day for 7 to 21 days; and the additional therapeutic agent isadministered 1 to 4 times per day for 7 to 21 days. In anotherembodiment of the sequential administration, the CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered from 1 to 4 timesper day for 14 days; and the additional therapeutic agent isadministered 1 to 4 times per day for 14 days.

In one specific embodiment of the sequential administration, the presentmethod comprises one or more treatment cycle and each of the treatmentcycle has 28 days, wherein the additional therapeutic agent isadministered once per day for 7 days, and the CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered once per day for 21 days.The 7 days for administering the additional therapeutic agent and the 21days for administering the CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugthereof, are independently consecutive or non-consecutive. For example,in a consecutive administration, the 7 days for administering theadditional therapeutic agent can be day 1 to day 7 in the treatmentcycle, and the 21 days for administering the CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug thereof, can be day 8 to day 28 in the treatmentcycle.

By “overlapping administration”, it is meant that during a period of twoor more days of continuous co-administration without any void day, thereis at least one day of simultaneous administration and at least one daywhen only one of the additional therapeutic agent and the CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered.

In one embodiment of overlapping administration, the CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered from 1 to 4 timesper day for 28 days; and the additional therapeutic agent isadministered 1 to 4 times per day for 7 to 14 days.

In one specific embodiment of overlapping administration, the presentmethod comprises one or more treatment cycle and each of the treatmentcycle has 28 days, wherein the additional therapeutic agent isadministered once per day for 7 days, and the CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered once per day for 28 days.The 7 days for administering the additional therapeutic agent can beconsecutive or non-consecutive. For example, in a consecutiveadministration, the 7 days for administering the additional therapeuticagent can be day 1 to day 7 in the treatment cycle.

By “interval administration”, it is meant a period of co-administrationwith at least one void day. By “continuous administration”, it is meanta period of co-administration without any void day. The continuousadministration may be simultaneous, sequential, or overlapping, asdescribed above.

In one embodiment of interval administration, the CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, is administered from 1 to 4 timesper day for 7 to 21 days; the additiona therapeutic agent isadministered 1 to 4 times per day for 7 to 21 days, and there are 1 to14 void days in the treatment cycle.

In one specific embodiment of interval administration, the presentmethod comprises one or more treatment cycle and each of the treatmentcycle has 28 days, wherein the additional therapeutic agent isadministered once per day for 7 days, the CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug thereof, is administered once per day for 7 to 14 days,and there are 7 to 14 void days in the treatment cycle. For example, theadditional therapeutic agent is administered once per day from day 1 today 7; the CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, isadministered once per day from day 15 to day 28; and day 7 to day 14 arevoid days in the treatment cycle.

In the present method, the co-administration comprises oraladministration, parenteral administration, or a combination thereof.Examples of the parentaeral administration include, but are not limitedto intravenous (IV) administration, intraarterial administration,intramuscular administration, subcutaneous administration, intraosseousadministration, intrathecal administration, or a combination thereof.The additional therapeutic agent and the CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug thereof, can be independently administered orally orparenterally. In one embodiment, the CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug thereof, is administered orally; and the additionaltherapeutic agent is administered parenterally. The parenteraladministration may be conducted via injection or infusion.

In one embodiment of the present method, combination therapy comprisesCVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof and the additionaltherapeutic agent comprises farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist. In oneembodiment of the present method, combination therapy comprises CVC, ora salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof and the additionaltherapeutic agent comprises high dose vitamin E (>400 iU/d). In oneembodiment of the present method, combination therapy comprises CVC, ora salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof and the additionaltherapeutic agent comprises a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptoralpha (PPAR-α) agonist. In one embodiment of the present method,combination therapy comprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/orprodrug therof and the additional therapeutic agent comprises a PPAR-γagonist. In one embodiment of the present method, combination therapycomprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof and theadditional therapeutic agent comprises a PPAR-δ agonist. In oneembodiment of the present method, combination therapy comprises CVC, ora salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof and the additionaltherapeutic agent comprises3-[2-[2-Chloro-4-[[3-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-5-(1-methylethyl)-4-isoxazolyl]methoxy]phenyl]ethenyl]benzoicacid (GW4064). In one embodiment of the present method, combinationtherapy comprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therofand the additional therapeutic agent comprises2-methyl-2-[[4-[2-[[(cyclohexylamino)carbonyl](4-cyclohexylbutyl)amino]ethyl]phenyl]thio]-propanoicacid (GW7647). In one embodiment of the present method, combinationtherapy comprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therofand the additional therapeutic agent comprises pioglitazone. In oneembodiment of the present method, combination therapy comprises CVC, ora salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof and the additionaltherapeutic agent comprises a chemokine antagonist.

In one embodiment, for one treatment cycle, the additional therapeuticagent is administered for 7 consecutive days before the administrationof CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof for 14consecutive days. In another embodiment, for one treatment cycle, CVC,or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof is administered for 14consecutive days before the administration of the additional therapeuticagent for 7 consecutive days. In yet another embodiment, for onetreatment cycle, the additional therapeutic agent is administered forthe first 7 consecutive days and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/orprodrug thereof is administered for the first 14 consecutive days. Inyet another embodiment, for one treatment cycle, the additionaltherapeutic agent is administered for the first 7 consecutive days, andCVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof is administered forthe first 28 consecutive days. In yet another embodiment, for onetreatment cycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isadministered for 28 consecutive days and the additional therapeuticagent is administered for 7 consecutive days that overlap with CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof administration. In anotherembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is administered on days 1through 7 and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isadministered on days 1 through 14, of a treatment cycle. In anotherembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is administered on days 1through 7 and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isadministered on days 1 through 28, of a treatment cycle. In anotherembodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is administered on days 1to 7 and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isadministered on days 8 through 21, of a treatment cycle. In yet anotherembodiment, CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isadministered on days 1 through 14 and the additional therapeutic agentis administered on days 15 through 21, of a treatment cycle. In anotherembodiment, the treatment cycle is 28 days, 29 days, 30 days or 31 days.In another embodiment, the treatment cycle is any length of time from 4weeks to 6 weeks long.

In one embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is administereddaily by 24-hour continuous infusion. In another embodiment, theadditional therapeutic agent is administered every 12 hours byintravenous infusion over 1 to 2 hours. In another embodiment, theadditional therapeutic agent is administered twice daily subcutaneously.In another embodiment, in one treatment cycle, the additionaltherapeutic agent is administered every other day for a total of 3 daysof administration. In another embodiment, in one treatment cycle, theadditional therapeutic agent is administered every other day for a totalof 4 days of administration. In another embodiment, in one treatmentcycle, the additional therapeutic agent is administered on days 1, 3 and5. In yet another embodiment, in one treatment cycle, the additionaltherapeutic agent is administered on days 1, 3, 5 and 7.

In another embodiment, in one treatment cycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug therof is administered for the first 14 consecutivedays, a first additional therapeutic agent is administered for 7consecutive days following the completion of CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug therof administration and an a second additionaltherapeutic agent is administered for 3 days overlapping with the firstadditional therapeutic compound administration. In another embodiment,in one treatment cycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugtherof is administered for the first 28 consecutive days, a firstadditional therapeutic agent is administered for 7 consecutive daysfollowing completion of 14 days of administration of CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof administration and secondadditional therapeutic agent is administered for 3 days overlapping withthe first additional therapeutic agent administration.

In another embodiment, in one treatment cycle, a first additionaltherapeutic agent is administered for the first 7 consecutive days, asecond additional therapeutic agent is administered for 3 consecutivedays overlapping with the first additional therapeutic agentadministration and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therofis administered for the first 28 consecutive days. In anotherembodiment, in one treatment cycle, a first additional therapeutic agentis administered for the first 7 consecutive days, a second additionaltherapeutic agent is administered for 3 consecutive days overlappingwith the first additional therapeutic agent administration and CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof is administered for the first14 consecutive days. In another embodiment, in one treatment cycle, afirst additional therapeutic agent is administered on days 1 through 7and a second additional therapeutic agent is administered on days 1through 3 and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isadministered on days 1 through 14. In another embodiment, in onetreatment cycle, a first additional therapeutic agent is administered ondays 1 through 7 and a second additional therapeutic agent isadministered on days 1 through 3 and CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug therof is administered on days 1 through 28. In anotherembodiment, a first additional therapeutic agent is administered on days1 through 7 and a second additional therapeutic agent is administered ondays 1 through 3 and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugtherof is administered on days 1 through 7 and 15 through 21.

In another embodiment, for one treatment cycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug therof is orally administered at 200 mg/day on days1 through 14 and a first additional therapeutic agent is administeredintravenously at 100 mg/m²/day on days 1 through 7 and a secondadditional therapeutic agent is administered intravenously at 60mg/m²/day on days 1 through 3. In yet another embodiment, for onetreatment cycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isorally administered at 200 mg/day on days 1 through 7 and days 15through 21 and a first additional therapeutic agent is administeredintravenously at 100 mg/m²/day on days 1 through 7 and a secondadditional therapeutic agent is administered intravenously at 60mg/m²/day on days 1 through 3. In another embodiment, for one treatmentcycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof is orallyadministered at 60 mg/day on days 1 through 14 and a first additionaltherapeutic agent is administered intravenously at 100 mg/m²/day on days1 through 7 and a second additional therapeutic agent is administeredintravenously at 60 mg/m²/day on days 1 through 3. In anotherembodiment, for one treatment cycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug therof is orally administered at 60 mg/day on days 1through 28 and a first additional therapeutic agent is administeredintravenously at 100 mg/m²/day on days 1 through 7 and a secondadditional therapeutic agent is administered intravenously at 60mg/m²/day on days 1 through 3. In yet another embodiment, for onetreatment cycle, CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof isorally administered at 60 mg/day on days 1 through 7 and days 15 through21 and a first additional therapeutic agent is administeredintravenously at 100 mg/m2/day on days 1 through 7 and a secondadditional therapeutic agent is administered intravenously at 60mg/m²/day on days 1 through 3.

In one specific embodiment, for one treatment cycle, a first additionaltherapeutic agent is administered intravenously at 100 mg/m²/day on days1 through 7 and a second additional therapeutic agent is administeredintravenously at 60 mg/m²/day on days 1 through 3 and CVC, or a salt,solvate, ester and/or prodrug therof is orally administered at 200mg/day on days 8 through 21.

In yet another embodiment, the combination regimen is given as firstline therapy (for example, to patients unfit for standard treatment ofhepatic or renal fibrosis). In another embodiment, the combinationregimen is given as second line therapy (for example, to patients whohave hepatic or renal fibrosis after receiving prior therapy).

Pharmaceutical Compositions, Dosages and Administration:

In one aspect, the present invention provides a pharmaceuticalcomposition and a combination package that are useful for treatingfibrosis and/or fibrotic diseases or conditions.

The compositions are intended to be administered by a suitable route,including, but not limited to, orally, parenterally, rectally, topicallyand locally. For oral administration, capsules and tablets can beformulated. The compositions are in liquid, semi-liquid or solid formand are formulated in a manner suitable for each route ofadministration.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises atherapeutically effective amount of (a) an additional therapeutic agent;and (b) CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof.Ingredients (a) and (b) are pharmaceutically active ingredients. Thepharmaceutical composition may comprise additional active ingredientsbesides (a) and (b). For example, the pharmaceutical composition maycomprise the additional active agent as described above. In oneembodiment, the additional active agent is a FXR or PPAR-α agonist. Inone embodiment, the additional active agent is a chemokine antagonist.

In one specific embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises aFXR agonist and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof.In another specific embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprisesa PPAR-α agonist and CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugthereof. In one specific embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositioncomprises a chemokine antagonist and CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug thereof.

A dosage of a particular subject can be determined according to thesubject's age, weight, general health conditions, sex, meal,administration time, administration route, excretion rate and the degreeof particular disease conditions to be treated by taking intoconsideration of these and other factors.

The present invention provides a method of treatment, wherein thecenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof is formulated as an oralcomposition.

The present invention provides a method of treatment, wherein thecenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof is administered, for example,once per day or twice per day. The dosage form can be administered for aduration of time sufficient to treat the fibrotic disease or condition.

In the case of oral administration, a daily dosage is in a range ofabout 5 to 1000 mg, preferably about 10 to 600 mg, and more preferablyabout 10 to 300 mg, most preferably about 15 to 200 mg as the activeingredient (i.e. as the compound of the invention) per an adult of bodyweight of 50 kg, and the medicine may be administered, for example,once, or in 2 to 3 divided doses a day.

The cenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof may be formulated into anydosage form suitable for oral or injectable administration. When thecompound is administered orally, it can be formulated into solid dosageforms for oral administration, for example, tablets, capsules, pills,granules, and so on. It also can be formulated into liquid dosage formsfor oral administration, such as oral solutions, oral suspensions,syrups and the like. The term “tablets” as used herein, refers to thosesolid preparations which are prepared by homogeneously mixing andpressing the compounds and suitable auxiliary materials into circular orirregular troches, mainly in common tablets for oral administration,including also buccal tablets, sublingual tablets, buccal wafer,chewable tablets, dispersible tablets, soluble tablets, effervescenttablets, sustained-release tablets, controlled-release tablets,enteric-coated tablets and the like. The term “capsules” as used herein,refers to those solid preparations which are prepared by filling thecompounds, or the compounds together with suitable auxiliary materialsinto hollow capsules or sealing into soft capsule materials. Accordingto the solubility and release property, capsules can be divided intohard capsules (regular capsules), soft capsules (soft shell capsules),sustained-release capsules, controlled-release capsules, enteric-coatedcapsules and the like. The term “pills” as used herein, refers tospherical or near-spherical solid preparations which are prepared bymixing the compounds and suitable auxiliary materials via suitablemethods, including dropping pills, dragee, pilule and the like. The term“granules” as used herein, refers to dry granular preparations which areprepared by mixing the compounds and suitable auxiliary materials andhave a certain particle size. Granules can be divided into solublegranules (generally referred to as granules), suspension granules,effervescent granules, enteric-coated granules, sustained-releasegranules, controlled-release granules and the like. The term “oralsolutions” as used herein, refers to a settled liquid preparation whichis prepared by dissolving the compounds in suitable solvents for oraladministration. The term “oral suspensions” as used herein, refers tosuspensions for oral administration, which are prepared by dispersingthe insoluble compounds in liquid vehicles, also including drysuspension or concentrated suspension. The term “syrups” as used herein,refers to a concentrated sucrose aqueous solution containing thecompounds. The injectable dosage form can be produced by theconventional methods in the art of formulations, and aqueous solvents ornon-aqueous solvents may be selected. The most commonly used aqueoussolvent is water for injection, as well as 0.9% sodium chloride solutionor other suitable aqueous solutions. The commonly used non-aqueoussolvent is vegetable oil, mainly soy bean oil for injection, and othersaqueous solutions of alcohol, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, andetc.

In one embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition comprising cenicrivirocor a salt thereof and fumaric acid is provided. In certain embodiments,the cenicriviroc or salt thereof is cenicriviroc mesylate.

In further embodiments, the weight ratio of cenicriviroc or salt thereofto fumaric acid is from about 7:10 to about 10:7, such as from about8:10 to about 10:8, from about 9:10 to about 10:9, or from about 95:100to about 100:95. In other further embodiments, the fumaric acid ispresent in an amount of from about 15% to about 40%, such as from about20% to about 30%, or about 25%, by weight of the composition. In otherfurther embodiments, the cenicriviroc or salt thereof is present in anamount of from about 15% to about 40%, such as from about 20% to about30%, or about 25%, by weight of the composition.

In other further embodiments, the composition of cenicriviroc or a saltthereof and fumaric acid further comprises one or more fillers. In morespecific embodiments, the one or more fillers are selected frommicrocrystalline cellulose, calcium phosphate dibasic, cellulose,lactose, sucrose, mannitol, sorbitol, starch, and calcium carbonate. Forexample, in certain embodiments, the one or more fillers ismicrocrystalline cellulose. In particular embodiments, the weight ratioof the one or more fillers to the cenicriviroc or salt thereof is fromabout 25:10 to about 10:8, such as from about 20:10 to about 10:10, orabout 15:10. In other particular embodiments, the one or more fillersare present in an amount of from about 25% to about 55%, such as fromabout 30% to about 50% or about 40%, by weight of the composition. Inother further embodiments, the composition further comprises one or moredisintegrants. In more specific embodiments, the one or moredisintegrants are selected from cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone,cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, and sodium starchglycolate. For example, in certain embodiments, the one or moredisintegrants is cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. Inparticular embodiments, the weight ratio of the one or moredisintegrants to the cenicriviroc or salt thereof is from about 10:10 toabout 30:100, such as about 25:100. In other particular embodiments, theone or more disintegrants are present in an amount of from about 2% toabout 10%, such as from about 4% to about 8%, or about 6%, by weight ofthe composition. In other further embodiments, the composition furthercomprises one or more lubricants. In more specific embodiments, the oneor more lubricants are selected from talc, silica, stearin, magnesiumstearate, and stearic acid. For example, in certain embodiments, the oneor more lubricants is magnesium stearate. In particular embodiments, theone or more lubricants are present in an amount of from about 0.25% toabout 5%, such as from about 0.75% to about 3%, or about 1.25%, byweight of the composition.

In other further embodiments, the composition of cenicriviroc or a saltthereof and fumaric acid is substantially similar to that of Table 2. Inother further embodiments, the composition of cenicriviroc or a saltthereof and fumaric acid is substantially similar to that of Tables 3and 4. In other further embodiments, any of the compositions ofcenicriviroc or a salt thereof and fumaric acid is produced by a processinvolving dry granulation. In other further embodiments, any of thecompositions of cenicriviroc or a salt thereof and fumaric acid has awater content of no more than about 4% by weight, such as no more than2% by weight, after six weeks exposure to about 40° C. at about 75%relative humidity when packaged with desiccant. In other furtherembodiments, any of the above-mentioned compositions has a totalimpurity level of no more than about 2.5%, such as no more than 1.5%,after 12 weeks of exposure to 40° C. at 75% relative humidity whenpackaged with desiccant. In other further embodiments, the cenicrivirocor salt thereof of any of the above-mentioned compositions has a meanabsolute bioavailability after oral administration that is substantiallysimilar to the bioavailability of the cenicriviroc or salt thereof in asolution after oral administration. In yet further embodiments, thecenicriviroc or salt thereof has an absolute bioavailability of about10% to about 50%, such as about 27%, in beagle dogs.

In another embodiment, a pharmaceutical formulation is provided thatcomprises a composition of cenicriviroc or a salt thereof and fumaricacid. In further embodiments, the composition in the formulation can bein the form of a granulate. In other further embodiments, thecomposition in the formulation is disposed in a capsule shell. In otherfurther embodiments, the composition of the formulation is disposed in asachet. In other further embodiments, the composition of the formulationis a tablet or a component of a tablet. In still other furtherembodiments, the composition of the formulation is one or more layers ofa multi-layered tablet. In other further embodiments, the formulationcomprises one or more additional pharmaceutically inactive ingredients.In other further embodiments, the formulation is substantially similarto that of Table 9. In other further embodiments, a tablet having acomposition substantially similar to of Table 9 is provided. In otherfurther embodiments, any of the above embodiments are coated substrates.In another embodiment, methods for preparing any of the above-mentionedembodiments are provided. In further embodiments, the method comprisesadmixing cenicriviroc or a salt thereof and fumaric acid to form anadmixture, and dry granulating the admixture. In other furtherembodiments, the method further comprises admixing one or more fillerswith the cenicriviroc or salt thereof and fumaric acid to form theadmixture. In other further embodiments, the method further comprisesadmixing one or more disintegrants with the cenicriviroc or salt thereofand fumaric acid to form the admixture. In other further embodiments,the method further comprises admixing one or more lubricants with thecenicriviroc or salt thereof and fumaric acid to form the admixture. Inother further embodiments, the method further comprises compressing thedry granulated admixture into a tablet. In other further embodiments,the method comprises filling a capsule with the dry granulatedadmixture.

Further, the compound of the invention can be included or used incombination with blood for transfusion or blood derivatives. In oneembodiment, the compound of the invention can be included or used incombination with one or more agents that purge latent HIV reservoirs andadded to blood for transfusion or blood derivatives. Usually, blood fortransfusion or blood derivatives are produced by mixing blood obtainedform plural persons and, in some cases, uninfected cells arecontaminated with cells infected with HIV virus. In such a case,uninfected cells are likely to be infected with HIV virus. When thecompound of the present invention is added to blood for transfusion orblood derivatives along with one or more agents that purge latent HIVreservoirs, infection and proliferation of the virus can be prevented orcontrolled. Especially, when blood derivatives are stored, infection andproliferation of the virus is effectively prevented or controlled byaddition of the compound of the present invention. In addition, whenblood for transfusion or blood derivatives contaminated with HIV virusare administered to a person, infection and proliferation of the virusin the person's body can be prevented by adding the compound of theinvention to the blood or blood derivatives in combination with one ormore agents that purge latent HIV reservoirs. For example, usually, forpreventing HIV infectious disease upon using blood or blood derivativesby oral administration, a dosage is in a range of about 0.02 to 50mg/kg, preferably about 0.05 to 30 mg/kg, and more preferably about 0.1to 10 mg/kg as the CCR5/CCR2 antagonist per an adult of body weight ofabout 60 kg, and the medicine may be administered once or 2 to 3 doses aday. As a matter of course, although the dosage range can be controlledon the basis of unit dosages necessary for dividing the daily dosage, asdescribed above, a dosage of a particular subject can be determinedaccording to the subject's age, weight, general health conditions, sex,meal, administration time, administration route, excretion rate and thedegree of particular disease conditions to be treated by taking intoconsideration of these and other factors. In this case, theadministration route is also appropriately selected and, the medicinefor preventing HIV infectious disease of the present invention may beadded directly to blood for transfusion or blood derivatives beforetransfusion or using blood derivatives. In such a case, desirably, themedicine of the present invention is mixed with blood or bloodderivatives immediately to 24 hours before, preferably immediately to 12hours before, more preferably immediately to 6 hours before transfusionor using blood derivatives.

Aside from blood for transfusion or blood derivatives, when thecompositions of the invention is administered together with the bloodfor transfusion or blood derivatives and/or other active agents, themedicine is administered preferably at the same time of, to 1 hourbefore transfusion or using the blood derivatives. More preferably, forexample, the medicine is administered once to 3 times per day and theadministration is continued 4 weeks.

In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition further comprisesa pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. The pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient can be any inert or slightly active substance used inpreparing a pharmaceutical composition as a vehicle, carrier, or mediumof administration for the active ingredients. In one embodiment, thepharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a release-rate controllingingredient. By “release-rate controlling ingredient”, it is meant aningredient that can control the release rate of the active ingredients.The pharmaceutically acceptable excipient can be used with the activeingredients to formulate suitable pharmaceutical preparations such assolutions, suspensions, tablets, dispersible tablets, pills, capsules,powders, sustained release formulations or elixirs, for oraladministration or in sterile solutions or suspensions for parenteraladministration, as well as transdermal patch preparation and dry powderinhalers. Typically the active ingredients described above areformulated into pharmaceutical compositions using techniques andprocedures well known in the art.

In one embodiment, the combination package comprises (a) at least oneindividual dose of an additional therapeutic agent, and (b) at least oneindividual dose of CVC or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof.In another embodiment, the combination package further comprises aninstruction document providing a protocol for co-administering (a) and(b).

Typically, the compositions are formulated for single dosageadministration. To formulate a composition, the weight fraction of (a)and (b) is dissolved, suspended, dispersed or otherwise mixed in aselected vehicle at an effective concentration such that the treatedcondition is relieved or ameliorated. Pharmaceutical carriers, vehicles,or other medium suitable for administration of (a) and (b) providedherein include any such carriers known to those skilled in the art to besuitable for the particular mode of administration.

In addition, (a) and (b) may be formulated as the only pharmaceuticallyactive ingredient in the composition or may be combined with otheractive ingredients. Liposomal suspensions, including tissue-targetedliposomes, such as tumor-targeted liposomes, may also be suitable aspharmaceutically acceptable carriers. These may be prepared according tomethods known to those skilled in the art. For example, liposomeformulations may be prepared as known in the art. Briefly, liposomessuch as multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) may be formed by drying down eggphosphatidyl choline and brain phosphatidyl serine (7:3 molar ratio) onthe inside of a flask. A solution of a compound provided herein inphosphate buffered saline lacking divalent cations (PBS) is added andthe flask shaken until the lipid film is dispersed. The resultingvesicles are washed to remove unencapsulated compound, pelleted bycentrifugation, and then resuspended in PBS.

The active ingredients are included in the pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient in an amount sufficient to exert a therapeutically usefuleffect with minimal or no undesirable side effects on the patienttreated. The concentration of active ingredients in the pharmaceuticalcomposition will depend on absorption, inactivation and excretion ratesof the active compounds, the physicochemical characteristics of thecompound, the dosage schedule, and amount administered as well as otherfactors known to those of skill in the art.

Typically a therapeutically effective dosage should produce a serumconcentration of active ingredient of from about 0.1 ng/ml to about 50to about 100 μg/ml. The pharmaceutical compositions typically shouldprovide a dosage of from about 0.001 mg to about 2000 mg of compound perkilogram of body weight per day. Pharmaceutical dosage unit forms areprepared to provide from about 1 mg to about 1000 mg and in certainembodiments, from about 10 mg to about 500 mg, from about 20 mg to about250 mg or from about 25 mg to about 100 mg of the essential activeingredient or a combination of essential ingredients per dosage unitform. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical dosage unit forms areprepared to provide about 1 mg, 20 mg, 25 mg, 50 mg, 100 mg, 250 mg, 500mg, 1000 mg or 2000 mg of the essential active ingredient. In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical dosage unit forms are prepared toprovide about 50 mg of the essential active ingredient.

The active ingredients may be administered at once, or may be dividedinto a number of smaller doses to be administered at intervals of time.It is understood that the precise dosage and duration of treatment is afunction of the disease being treated and may be determined empiricallyusing known testing protocols or by extrapolation from in vivo or invitro test data. It is to be noted that concentrations and dosage valuesmay also vary with the severity of the condition to be alleviated and/orthe age, bodyweight, and other health concerns of the patient. It is tobe further understood that for any particular subject, specific dosageregimens should be adjusted over time according to the individual needand the professional judgment of the person administering or supervisingthe administration of the compositions, and that the concentrationranges set forth herein are exemplary only and are not intended to limitthe scope or practice of the claimed compositions.

Thus, effective concentrations or amounts of the active ingredientsdescribed herein or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof aremixed with a suitable pharmaceutical carrier, vehicle, or other mediumfor systemic, topical or local administration to form pharmaceuticalcompositions. Compounds are included in an amount effective forameliorating one or more symptoms of, or for treating or preventingfibrosis and/or fibrotic diseases or conditions. The concentration ofactive compound in the composition will depend on absorption,inactivation, excretion rates of the active compound, the dosageschedule, amount administered, particular formulation as well as otherfactors known to those of skill in the art.

Solutions or suspensions used for parenteral, intradermal, subcutaneous,or topical application can include any of the following components: asterile diluent, such as water for injection, saline solution, fixedoil, polyethylene glycol, glycerine, propylene glycol, dimethylacetamide or other synthetic solvent; antimicrobial agents, such asbenzyl alcohol and methyl parabens; antioxidants, such as ascorbic acidand sodium bisulfite; chelating agents, such asethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA); buffers, such as acetates,citrates and phosphates; and agents for the adjustment of tonicity suchas sodium chloride or dextrose. Parenteral preparations can be enclosedin ampules, disposable syringes or single or multiple dose vials made ofglass, plastic or other suitable material.

In instances in which the active ingredients exhibit insufficientsolubility, methods for solubilizing compounds may be used. Such methodsare known to those of skill in this art, and include, but are notlimited to, using cosolvents, such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), usingsurfactants, such as TWEEN®, or dissolution in aqueous sodiumbicarbonate.

Upon mixing or addition of the active ingredients, the resulting mixturemay be a solution, suspension, emulsion or the like. The form of theresulting mixture depends upon a number of factors, including theintended mode of administration and the solubility of the compound inthe selected carrier or vehicle. In one embodiment, the effectiveconcentration is sufficient for ameliorating the symptoms of thedisease, disorder or condition treated and may be empiricallydetermined.

The pharmaceutical compositions are provided for administration tohumans and animals in unit dosage forms, such as tablets, capsules,pills, powders, granules, sterile parenteral solutions or suspensions,and oral solutions or suspensions, and oil-water emulsions containingsuitable quantities of the compounds or pharmaceutically acceptablederivatives thereof. The pharmaceutically therapeutically activecompounds and derivatives thereof are typically formulated andadministered in unit-dosage forms or multiple-dosage forms. Unit-doseforms as used herein refer to physically discrete units suitable forhuman and animal subjects and packaged individually as is known in theart. Each unit-dose contains a predetermined quantity of thetherapeutically active compound sufficient to produce the desiredtherapeutic effect, in association with the required pharmaceuticalcarrier, vehicle or diluent. Examples of unit-dose forms include ampulesand syringes and individually packaged tablets or capsules. Unit-doseforms may be administered in fractions or multiples thereof. Amultiple-dose form is a plurality of identical unit-dosage formspackaged in a single container to be administered in segregatedunit-dose form. Examples of multiple-dose forms include vials, bottlesof tablets or capsules or bottles of pints or gallons. Hence, multipledose form is a multiple of unit-doses which are not segregated inpackaging.

Controlled-release preparations can also be prepared. Suitable examplesof controlled-release preparations include semipermeable matrices ofsolid hydrophobic polymers containing the active ingredients providedherein, which matrices are in the form of shaped articles, e.g., films,or microcapsule. Examples of controlled-release matrices includepolyesters, hydrogels (for example, poly(2-hydroxyethyl-methacrylate),or poly(vinylalcohol)), polylactides, copolymers of L-glutamic acid andethyl-L-giutamate, non-degradable ethylene-vinyl acetate, degradablelactic acid-glycolic acid copolymers such as the LUPRON DEPOT™(injectable microspheres composed of lactic acid-glycolic acid copolymerand leuprolide acetate), and poly-D-(−)-3-hydroxybutyric acid. Whilepolymers such as ethylene-vinyl acetate and lactic acid-glycolic acidenable release of molecules for over 100 days, certain hydrogels releaseproteins for shorter time periods. When encapsulated active ingredientsremain in the body for a long time, they may denature or aggregate as aresult of exposure to moisture at 37° C., resulting in a loss ofbiological activity and possible changes in their structure. Rationalstrategies can be devised for stabilization depending on the mechanismof action involved. For example, if the aggregation mechanism isdiscovered to be intermolecular S—S bond formation throughthio-disulfide interchange, stabilization may be achieved by modifyingsulfhydryl residues, lyophilizing from acidic solutions, controllingmoisture content, using appropriate additives, and developing specificpolymer matrix compositions. Other examples of controlled-releasepreparations include coated compositions. For example, the coating mayfunction as a barrier to decrease the release rate of the activeingredients; or the coating is enteric, i.e., pratically insoluble in anacidic environment and thereby delays the release of the activeingredients until the composition reaches the lower GI tract wherein thepH environment is neutral or basic.

Dosage forms or compositions containing active ingrediensts in the rangeof 0.005% to 100% with the balance made up from non-toxic excipient maybe prepared. For oral administration, a pharmaceutically acceptablenon-toxic composition is formed by the incorporation of any of thenormally employed excipients, such as, for example pharmaceutical gradesof mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, talcum, cellulosederivatives, sodium crosscarmellose, glucose, sucrose, magnesiumcarbonate or sodium saccharin. Such compositions include solutions,suspensions, tablets, capsules, powders and sustained releaseformulations, such as, but not limited to, implants andmicroencapsulated delivery systems, and biodegradable, biocompatiblepolymers, such as collagen, ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides,polyglycolic acid, polyorthoesters, polylactic acid and others. Methodsfor preparation of these compositions are known to those skilled in theart. The contemplated compositions may contain about 0.001%-100% activeingredients, in certain embodiments, about 0.1-85%, typically about75-95%.

The active ingredients or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives may beprepared with carriers that protect the active ingredients against rapidelimination from the body, such as time release formulations orcoatings. The compositions may include other active compounds to obtaindesired combinations of properties. The active ingredients providedherein, or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof as describedherein, may also be advantageously administered for therapeutic orprophylactic purposes together with another pharmacological agent knownin the general art to be of value in treating one or more of thediseases or medical conditions referred to hereinabove, such as fibrosisand/or fibrotic diseases or conditions. It is to be understood that suchcombination therapy constitutes a further aspect of the compositions andmethods of treatment provided herein.

Compositions for Oral Administration

Oral pharmaceutical dosage forms are either solid, gel or liquid. Thesolid dosage forms are tablets, capsules, granules, and bulk powders.Types of oral tablets include compressed, chewable lozenges and tabletswhich may be enteric-coated, sugar-coated or film-coated. Capsules maybe hard or soft gelatin capsules, while granules and powders may beprovided in non-effervescent or effervescent form with the combinationof other ingredients known to those skilled in the art.

In certain embodiments, the formulations are solid dosage forms, such ascapsules or tablets. The tablets, pills, capsules, troches and the likecan contain any of the following ingredients, or compounds of a similarnature: a binder; a diluent; a disintegrating agent; a lubricant; aglidant; a sweetening agent; and a flavoring agent.

Examples of binders include microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth,glucose solution, acacia mucilage, gelatin solution, sucrose and starchpaste. Lubricants include talc, starch, magnesium or calcium stearate,lycopodium and stearic acid. Diluents include, for example, lactose,sucrose, starch, kaolin, salt, mannitol and dicalcium phosphate.Glidants include, but are not limited to, colloidal silicon dioxide.Disintegrating agents include crosscarmellose sodium, sodium starchglycolate, alginic acid, corn starch, potato starch, bentonite,methylcellulose, agar and carboxymethylcellulose. Coloring agentsinclude, for example, any of the approved certified water soluble FD andC dyes, mixtures thereof; and water insoluble FD and C dyes suspended onalumina hydrate. Sweetening agents include sucrose, lactose, mannitoland artificial sweetening agents such as saccharin, and any number ofspray dried flavors. Flavoring agents include natural flavors extractedfrom plants such as fruits and synthetic blends of compounds whichproduce a pleasant sensation, such as, but not limited to peppermint andmethyl salicylate. Wetting agents include propylene glycol monostearate,sorbitan monooleate, diethylene glycol monolaurate and polyoxyethylenelaural ether. Emetic-coatings include fatty acids, fats, waxes, shellac,ammoniated shellac and cellulose acetate phthalates. Film coatingsinclude hydroxyethylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose,polyethylene glycol 4000 and cellulose acetate phthalate.

If oral administration is desired, the active ingredients could beprovided in a composition that protects it from the acidic environmentof the stomach. For example, the composition can be formulated in anenteric coating that maintains its integrity in the stomach and releasesthe active compound in the intestine. The composition may also beformulated in combination with an antacid or other such ingredient.

When the dosage unit form is a capsule, it can contain, in addition tomaterial of the above type, a liquid carrier such as a fatty oil. Inaddition, dosage unit forms can contain various other materials whichmodify the physical form of the dosage.unit, for example, coatings ofsugar and other enteric agents. The active ingredients can also beadministered as components of an elixir, suspension, syrup, wafer,sprinkle, chewing gum or the like. A syrup may contain, in addition tothe active compounds, sucrose as a sweetening agent and certainpreservatives, dyes and colorings and flavors. The active ingredientscan also be mixed with other active materials which do not impair thedesired action, or with materials that supplement the desired action,such as antacids, H2 blockers, and diuretics.

Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients included in tablets are binders,lubricants, diluents, disintegrating agents, coloring agents, flavoringagents, and wetting agents. Enteric-coated tablets, because of theenteric-coating, resist the action of stomach acid and dissolve ordisintegrate in the neutral or alkaline intestines. Sugar-coated tabletsare compressed tablets to which different layers of pharmaceuticallyacceptable substances are applied. Film-coated tablets are compressedtablets which have been coated with a polymer or other suitable coating.Multiple compressed tablets are compressed tablets made by more than onecompression cycle utilizing the pharmaceutically acceptable substancespreviously mentioned. Coloring agents may also be used in the abovedosage forms. Flavoring and sweetening agents are used in compressedtablets, sugar-coated, multiple compressed and chewable tablets.Flavoring and sweetening agents are especially useful in the formationof chewable tablets and lozenges. Liquid oral dosage forms includeaqueous solutions, emulsions, suspensions, solutions and/or suspensionsreconstituted from non-effervescent granules and effervescentpreparations reconstituted from effervescent granules. Aqueous solutionsinclude, for example, elixirs and syrups. Emulsions are eitheroil-in-water or water-in-oil.

Elixirs are clear, sweetened, hydroalcoholic preparations.Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients used in elixirs include solvents.Syrups are concentrated aqueous solutions of a sugar, for example,sucrose, and may contain a preservative. An emulsion is a two-phasesystem in which one liquid is dispersed in the form of small globulesthroughout another liquid. harmaceutically acceptable excipients used inemulsions are non-aqueous liquids, emulsifying agents and preservatives.Suspensions use pharmaceutically acceptable suspending agents andpreservatives. Pharmaceutically acceptable substances used innon-effervescent granules, to be reconstituted into a liquid oral dosageform, include diluents, sweeteners and wetting agents. Pharmaceuticallyacceptable substances used in effervescent granules, to be reconstitutedinto a liquid oral dosage form, include organic acids and a source ofcarbon dioxide. Coloring and flavoring agents are used in all of theabove dosage forms. Solvents include glycerin, sorbitol, ethyl alcoholand syrup.

Examples of preservatives include glycerin, methyl and propylparaben,benzoic add, sodium benzoate and alcohol. Examples of non-aqueousliquids utilized in emulsions include mineral oil and cottonseed oil.Examples of emulsifying agents include gelatin, acacia, tragacanth,bentonite, and surfactants such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate.Suspending agents include sodium carboxymethylcellulose, pectin,tragacanth, Veegum and acacia. Diluents include lactose and sucrose.Sweetening agents include sucrose, syrups, glycerin and artificialsweetening agents such as saccharin. Wetting agents include propyleneglycol monostearate, sorbitan monooleate, diethylene glycol monolaurateand polyoxyethylene lauryl ether. Organic adds include citric andtartaric acid. Sources of carbon dioxide include sodium bicarbonate andsodium carbonate. Coloring agents include any of the approved certifiedwater soluble FD and C dyes, and mixtures thereof. Flavoring agentsinclude natural flavors extracted from plants such fruits, and syntheticblends of compounds which produce a pleasant taste sensation.

For a solid dosage form, the solution or suspension, in for examplepropylene carbonate, vegetable oils or triglycerides, is encapsulated ina gelatin capsule. For a liquid dosage form, the solution, e.g., forexample, in a polyethylene glycol, may be diluted with a sufficientquantity of a pharmaceutically acceptable liquid carrier, e.g., water,to be easily measured for administration.

Alternatively, liquid or semi-solid oral formulations may be prepared bydissolving or dispersing the active compound or salt in vegetable oils,glycols, triglycerides, propylene glycol esters (e.g., propylenecarbonate) and other such carriers, and encapsulating these solutions orsuspensions in hard or soft gelatin capsule shells. Other usefulformulations include, but are not limited to, those containing acompound provided herein, a dialkylated mono- or poly-alkylene glycol,including, but not limited to, 1,2-dimethoxymethane, diglyme, triglyme,tetraglyme, polyethylene glycol-350-dimethyl ether, polyethyleneglycol-550-dimethyl ether, polyethylene glycol-750-dimethyl etherwherein 350, 550 and 750 refer to the approximate average molecularweight of the polyethylene glycol, and one or more antioxidants, such asbutylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), propylgallate, vitamin E, hydroquinone, hydroxycoumarins, ethanolamine,lecithin, cephalin, ascorbic acid, malic acid, sorbitol, phosphoricacid, thiodipropionic acid and its esters, and dithiocarbamates.

Other formulations include, but are not limited to, aqueous alcoholicsolutions including a pharmaceutically acceptable acetal. Alcohols usedin these formulations are any pharmaceutically acceptable water-misciblesolvents having one or more hydroxyl groups, including, but not limitedto, propylene glycol and ethanol. Acetals include, but are not limitedto, di(lower alkyl) acetals of lower alkyl aldehydes such asacetaldehyde diethyl acetal.

In all embodiments, tablets and capsules formulations may be coated asknown by those of skill in the art in order to modify or sustaindissolution of the active ingredient. Thus, for example, they may becoated with a conventional enterically digestible coating, such asphenylsalicylate, waxes and cellulose acetate phthalate.

Injectables, Solutions and Emulsions

Parenteral administration, generally characterized by injection, eithersubcutaneously, intramuscularly or intravenously is also contemplatedherein. Injectables can be prepared in conventional forms, either asliquid solutions or suspensions, solid forms suitable for solution orsuspension in liquid prior to injection, or as emulsions. Suitableexcipients are, for example, water, saline, dextrose, glycerol orethanol. In addition, if desired, the pharmaceutical compositions to beadministered may also contain minor amounts of non-toxic auxiliarysubstances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents,stabilizers, solubility enhancers, and other such agents, such as forexample, sodium acetate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine oleateand cyclodextrins. In one embodiment, the composition is administered asan aqueous solution with hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPBCD) as anexcipient. In one embodiment, the aqueous solution contains about 1% toabout 50% HPBCD. In one embodiment, the aqueous solution contains about1%, 3%, 5%, 10% or about 20% HPBCD.

Implantation of a slow-release or sustained-release system, such that aconstant level of dosage is maintained is also contemplated herein.Briefly, a compound provided herein is dispersed in a solid innermatrix, e.g., polymethylmethacrylate, polybutylmethacrylate, plasticizedor unplasticized polyvinylchloride, plasticized nylon, plasticizedpolyethyleneterephthalate, natural rubber, polyisoprene,polyisobutylene, polybutadiene, polyethylene, ethylene-vinylacetatecopolymers, silicone rubbers, polydimethylsiloxanes, silicone carbonatecopolymers, hydrophilic polymers such as hydrogels of esters of acrylicand methacrylic acid, collagen, cross-linked polyvinylalcohol andcross-linked partially hydrolyzed polyvinyl acetate, that is surroundedby an outer polymeric membrane, e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene,ethylene/propylene copolymers, ethylene/ethyl acrylate copolymers,ethylene/vinylacetate copolymers, silicone rubbers, polydimethylsiloxanes, neoprene rubber, chlorinated polyethylene, polyvinylchloride,vinylchloride copolymers with vinyl acetate, vinylidene chloride,ethylene and propylene, ionomer polyethylene terephthalate, butyl rubberepichlorohydrin rubbers, ethylene/vinyl alcohol copolymer,-ethylene/vinyl acetate/vinyl alcohol terpolymer, andethylene/vinyloxyethanol copolymer, that is insoluble in body fluids.The compound diffuses through the outer polymeric membrane in a releaserate controlling step. The percentage of active compound contained insuch parenteral compositions is highly dependent on the specific naturethereof, as well as the activity of the compound and the needs of thesubject.

Parenteral administration of the compositions includes intravenous,subcutaneous and intramuscular administrations. Preparations forparenteral administration include sterile solutions ready for injection,sterile dry soluble products, such as lyophilized powders, ready to becombined with a solvent just prior to use, including hypodermic tablets,sterile suspensions ready for injection, sterile dry insoluble productsready to be combined with a vehicle just prior to use and sterileemulsions. The solutions may be either aqueous or nonaqueous.

If administered intravenously, suitable carriers include physiologicalsaline or phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and solutions containingthickening and solubilizing agents, such as glucose, polyethyleneglycol, and polypropylene glycol and mixtures thereof.

Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients used in parenteral preparationsinclude aqueous vehicles, nonaqueous vehicles, antimicrobial agents,isotonic agents, buffers, antioxidants, local anesthetics, suspendingand dispersing agents, emulsifying agents, sequestering or chelatingagents and other pharmaceutically acceptable substances.

Examples of aqueous vehicles include Sodium Chloride Injection, RingersInjection, Isotonic Dextrose Injection, Sterile Water Injection,Dextrose and Lactated Ringers Injection. Nonaqueous parenteral vehiclesinclude fixed oils of vegetable origin, cottonseed oil, corn oil, sesameoil and peanut oil. Antimicrobial agents in bacteriostatic orfungistatic concentrations must be added to parenteral preparationspackaged in multiple-dose containers which include phenols or cresofs,mercurials, benzyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, methyl and propylp-hydroxybenzoic acid esters, thimerosal, benzalkonium chloride andbenzethonium chloride. Isotonic agents include sodium chloride anddextrose. Buffers include phosphate and citrate. Antioxidants includesodium bisulfate. Local anesthetics include procaine hydrochloride.Suspending and dispersing agents include sodium carboxymethylcelluose,hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and polyvinylpyrrolidone. Emulsifyingagents include Polysorbate 80 (TWEEN® 80). A sequestering or chelatingagent of metal ions include EDTA. Pharmaceutical carriers also includeethyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol and propylene glycol for watermiscible vehicles and sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, citric acidor lactic acid for pH adjustment. The concentration of thepharmaceutically active compound is adjusted so that an injectionprovides an effective amount to produce the desired pharmacologicaleffect. The exact dose depends on the age, weight and condition of thepatient or animal as is known in the art. The unit-dose parenteralpreparations are packaged in an ampule, a vial or a syringe with aneedle. All preparations for parenteral administration must be sterile,as is known and practiced in the art.

Illustratively, intravenous or intraarterial infusion of a sterileaqueous solution containing an active compound is an effective mode ofadministration. Another embodiment is a sterile aqueous or oily solutionor suspension containing an active material injected as necessary toproduce the desired pharmacological effect.

Injectables are designed for local and systemic administration.Typically a therapeutically effective dosage is formulated to contain aconcentration of at least about 0.1% w/w up to about 90% w/w or more,such as more than 1% w/w of the active compound to the treatedtissue(s). The active ingredients may be administered at once, or may bedivided into a number of smaller doses to be administered at intervalsof time. It is understood that the precise dosage and duration oftreatment is a function of the tissue being treated and may bedetermined empirically using known testing protocols or by extrapolationfrom in vivo or in vitro test data. It is to be noted thatconcentrations and dosage values may also vary with the age of theindividual treated. It is to be further understood that for anyparticular subject, specific dosage regimens should be adjusted overtime according to the individual need and the professional judgment ofthe person administering or supervising the administration of theformulations, and that the concentration ranges set forth herein areexemplary only and are not intended to limit the scope or practice ofthe claimed formulations.

The compound may be suspended in micronized or other suitable form ormay be derivatized to produce a more soluble active product or toproduce a prodrug. The form of the resulting mixture depends upon anumber of factors, including the intended mode of administration and thesolubility of the compound in the selected carrier or vehicle. Theeffective concentration is sufficient for ameliorating the symptoms ofthe condition and may be empirically determined.

Sustained Release Compositions

Active ingredients provided herein can be administered by controlledrelease means or by delivery devices that are well known to those ofordinary skill in the art. Examples include, but are not limited to,those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,845,770; 3,916,899; 3,536,809;3,598,123; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,008,719, 5,674,533, 5,059,595,5,591,767, 5,120,548, 5,073,543, 5,639,476, 5,354,556, 5,639,480,5,733,566, 5,739,108, 5,891,474, 5,922,356, 5,972,891, 5,980,945,5,993,855, 6,045,830, 6,087,324, 6,113,943, 6,197,350, 6,248,363,6,264,970, 6,267,981, 6,376,461,6,419,961, 6,589,548, 6,613,358,6,699,500 and 6,740,634, each of which is incorporated herein byreference. Such dosage forms can be used to provide slow orcontrolled-release of one or more active ingredients using, for example,hydropropylmethyl cellulose, other polymer matrices, gels, permeablemembranes, osmotic systems, multilayer coatings, micraparticles,liposomes, microspheres, or a combination thereof to provide the desiredrelease profile in varying proportions. Suitable controlled-releaseformulations known to those of ordinary skill in the art, includingthose described herein, can be readily selected for use with the activeingredients provided herein.

All controlled-release pharmaceutical products have a common goal ofimproving drug therapy over that achieved by their non-controlledcounterparts. Ideally, the use of an optimally designedcontrolled-release preparation in medical treatment is characterized bya minimum of drug substance being employed to cure or control thecondition in a minimum amount of time. Advantages of controlled-releaseformulations include extended activity of the drug, reduced dosagefrequency, and increased patient compliance. In addition,controlled-release formulations can be used to affect the time of onsetof action or other characteristics, such as blood levels of the drug,and can thus affect the occurrence of side (e.g., adverse) effects.

Most controlled-release formulations are designed to initially releasean amount of drug (active ingredient) that promptly produces the desiredtherapeutic effect, and gradually and continually release of otheramounts of drug to maintain this level of therapeutic or prophylacticeffect over an extended period of time. In order to maintain thisconstant level of drug in the body, the drug must be released from thedosage form at a rate that will replace the amount of drug beingmetabolized and excreted from the body. Controlled-release of an activeingredient can be stimulated by various conditions including, but notlimited to, pH, temperature, enzymes, water, or other physiologicalconditions or compounds.

In certain embodiments, the agent may be administered using intravenousinfusion, an implantable osmotic pump, a transdermal patch, liposomes,or other modes of administration. In one embodiment, a pump may be used.In another embodiment, polymeric materials can be used. In yet anotherembodiment, a controlled release system can be placed in proximity ofthe therapeutic target, i.e., thus requiring only a fraction of thesystemic dose. In some embodiments, a controlled release device isintroduced into a subject in proximity of the site of inappropriateimmune activation or a tumor. The active ingredient can be dispersed ina solid inner matrix, e.g., polymethylmethacrylate,polybutylmethacrylate, plasticized or unplasticized polyvinylchloride,plasticized nylon, plasticized polyethyleneterephthalate, naturalrubber, polyisoprene, polyisobutylene, polybutadiene, polyethylene,ethylene-vinylacetate copolymers, silicone rubbers,polydimethylsiloxanes, silicone carbonate copolymers, hydrophilicpolymers such as hydrogels of esters of acrylic and methacrylic acid,collagen, cross-linked polyvinylalcoho! and cross-linked partiallyhydrolyzed polyvinyl acetate, that is surrounded by an outer polymericmembrane, e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, ethylene/propylenecopolymers, ethylene/ethyl acrylate copolymers, ethylene/vinylacetatecopolymers, silicone rubbers, polydimethyl siloxanes, neoprene rubber,chlorinated polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, vinylchloride copolymerswith vinyl acetate, vinylidene chloride, ethylene and propylene, ionomerpolyethylene terephthalate, butyl rubber epichlorohydrin rubbers,ethylene/vinyl alcohol copolymer, ethylene/vinyl acetate/vinyl alcoholterpolymer, and ethylene/vinyloxyethanol copolymer, that is insoluble inbody fluids. The active ingredient then diffuses through the outerpolymeric membrane in a release rate controlling step. The percentage ofactive ingredient contained in such parenteral compositions is highlydependent on the specific nature thereof, as well as the needs of thesubject.

Targeted Formulations

The active ingredients provided herein, or pharmaceutically acceptablederivatives thereof, may also be formulated to be targeted to aparticular tissue, receptor, or other area of the body of the subject tobe treated. Many such targeting methods are well known to those of skillin the art. All such targeting methods are contemplated herein for usein the instant compositions. For non-limiting examples of targetingmethods, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,316,652, 6,274,552, 6,271,359,6,253,872, 6,139,865, 6,131,570, 6,120,751, 6,071,495, 6,060,082,6,048,736, 6,039,975, 6,004,534, 5,985,307, 5,972,366, 5,900,252,5,840,674, 5,759,542 and 5,709,874.

In one embodiment, liposomal suspensions, including tissue-targetedliposomes, such as tumor-targeted liposomes, may also be suitable aspharmaceutically acceptable carriers. These may be prepared according tomethods known to those skilled in the art. Briefly, liposomes such asmultilamellar vesicles (MLVs) may be formed by drying down eggphosphatidyl choline and brain phosphatidyl serine (7:3 molar ratio) onthe inside of a flask. A solution of a compound provided herein inphosphate buffered saline lacking divalent cations (PBS) is added andthe flask shaken until the lipid film is dispersed. The resultingvesicles are washed to remove unencapsulated compound, pelleted bycentrifugation, and then resuspended in PBS.

Method of Distribution

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of distributingan antifibrotic agent. The term “antifibrotic agent” denotes a chemicalagent to treat or control disease, particularly fibrosis and/or fibroticdiseases or conditions.

In one embodiment, the method comprises distributing to a subject apredetermined amount of a first pharmaceutical composition incombination with a predetermined amount of a second pharmaceuticalcomposition. The first pharmaceutical composition comprises CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, and the secondpharmaceutical composition comprises an additional therapeutic agent. Inone specific embodiment, the first pharmaceutical composition comprisesCVC or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, and the secondpharmaceutical composition comprises a FXR agonist. In another specificembodiment, the first pharmaceutical composition comprises CVC or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, and the secondpharmaceutical composition comprises a PPAR-α agonist. In one specificembodiment, the first pharmaceutical composition comprises CVC or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, and the secondpharmaceutical composition comprises a chemokine antagonist. The term“antifibrotic agent” denotes a chemical agent to treat or controldisease, particularly fibrosis and/or fibrotic diseases or conditions.In another embodiment, the method comprises distributing a predeterminedamount of a third pharmaceutical composition in combination with thefirst and second pharmaceutical compositions. The third pharmaceuticalcomposition comprises an additional therapeutic agent as describedhereinabove.

In another embodiment, the method comprises distributing to a subject apredetermined amount of a first pharmaceutical composition incombination with an instruction of administering the firstpharmaceutical composition with a predetermined amount of a secondpharmaceutical composition. In another embodiment, the method comprisesdistributing to a subject a predetermined amount of a firstpharmaceutical composition in combination with an instruction ofadministering the first pharmaceutical composition with a predeterminedamount of a second pharmaceutical composition and a predetermined amountof a third pharmaceutical composition. For example, the firstpharmaceutical composition comprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug thereof, and the second pharmaceutical compositioncomprises a FXR agonist; or alternatively, the first pharmaceuticalcomposition comprises a FXR agonist, and the second pharmaceuticalcomposition comprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrugthereof. The third pharmaceutical composition comprises a secondadditional therapeutic agent as described hereinabove. In oneembodiment, the second additional therapeutic agent is another FXRagonist. In one embodiment, the second additional therapeutic agent is aPPAR-α agonist. In another example, the first pharmaceutical compositioncomprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof, and thesecond pharmaceutical composition comprises a PPAR-α agonist; oralternatively, the first pharmaceutical composition comprises a PPAR-αagonist, and the second pharmaceutical composition comprises CVC, or asalt, solvate, ester and/or prodrug thereof. The third pharmaceuticalcomposition comprises a second additional therapeutic agent as describedhereinabove. In one embodiment, the second additional therapeutic agentis another PPAR-α agonist. In one embodiment, the second additionaltherapeutic agent is a FXR agonist. In another example, the firstpharmaceutical composition comprises CVC, or a salt, solvate, esterand/or prodrug thereof, and the second pharmaceutical compositioncomprises a chemokine antagonist; or alternatively, the firstpharmaceutical composition comprises a chemokine antagonist, and thesecond pharmaceutical composition comprises CVC, or a salt, solvate,ester and/or prodrug thereof. The third pharmaceutical compositioncomprises a second additional therapeutic agent as describedhereinabove.

The following Examples further illustrate the present invention indetail but are not to be construed to limit the scope thereof.

EXAMPLES Example 1—Cenicriviroc Mesylate Compositions

A series of cenicriviroc mesylate compositions that were identicalexcept for the identity of the acid solubilizer were prepared by wetgranulation in a Key 1L bowl granulator, followed by tray drying,sieving, mixing and compression into tablets on a Carver press. Thecomposition of the formulations is shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Unit Formula (mg/unit) Ex. 1a Ex. 1b Ex. 1c Ex. 1d CitricFumaric Maleic Sodium Components Acid Acid Acid Bisulfate CenicrivirocMesylate 28.45 28.45 28.45 28.45 Mannitol 7.88 7.88 7.88 7.88Hydroxypropyl 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.62 Cellulose Croscarmellose Sodium 1.751.75 1.75 1.75 Croscarmellose Sodium 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 Citric Acid43.75 — — — Fumaric Acid — 43.75 — — Maleic Acid — — 43.75 — SodiumBisulfate — — — 43.75 Silicon Dioxide 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 MagnesiumStearate 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 Total 87.5 87.5 87.5 87.5

The tablets were administered to beagle dogs. An oral solution was alsoadministered as a control. The absolute bioavailabilities of theformulations and of the oral solution were determined, and are shown inFIG. 2. The result shows that the cenicriviroc mesylate with fumaricacid has a significantly higher bioavailability than any of the othersolubilizers tested.

Example 2: Cenicriviroc Mesylate Compositions

Cenicriviroc mesylate, fumaric acid, microcrystalline cellulose,cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, and magnesium stearate wereadmixed, dry granulated, milled, blended with extragranularmicrocrystalline cellulose, cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose,and magnesium stearate and compressed into tablets having a hardnessgreater than 10 kP and friability less than 0.8% w/w. The resultingtablets had the composition shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Unit Formula (mg/unit) Components Ex. 2a Ex. 2b Ex. 2c Ex. 2dEx. 2e Cenicriviroc Mesylate 170.69^(a) 170.69^(a) 170.69^(a) 170.69^(a)170.69^(a) Fumaric Acid 160.00 160.00 160.00^(b) 160.00 80.00Microcrystalline 252.68 272.18 272.18 272.18 66.35 CelluloseCrospovidone — — — 19.50 — Croscarmellose Sodium 58.50 39.00 39.00 19.5020.70 Magnesium Stearate 8.13 8.13 8.13 8.13 2.55 Total 650.0 650.0650.0 650.0 340.0 ^(a)Equivalent to 150 mg cenicriviroc freebase.^(b)Added in the extragranular portion of the powder blend.

By way of illustration, the concentration percentage and mass per tabletof the components in Example 2b (i.e., Ex. 2b) are given in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Component Concentration (% w/w) Mass (mg) per tabletCenicriviroc mesylate 26.26 170.69^(a) Fumaric acid 24.62 160.00Microcrystalline 41.87 272.18 cellulose Cross-linked sodium 6.00 39.00carboxymethyl cellulose Magnesium stearate 1.25 8.13 Total 100.0 650.0^(a)equivalent to 150 mg cenicriviroc free base

Example 3: Cenicriviroc Mesylate Compositions

Cenicriviroc mesylate, microcrystalline cellulose, cross-linked sodiumcarboxymethyl cellulose, and magnesium stearate were admixed, drygranulated, dried, milled, blended with extragranular microcrystallinecellulose, cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, fumaric acid,colloidal silicon dioxide, and magnesium stearate and compressed intotablets having a hardness greater than 10 kP and friability less than0.8% w/w. The resulting tablets had the composition shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Concentration Mass (mg) per Component (% w/w) tabletCenicriviroc mesylate 26.26 28.45^(a) Fumaric acid 24.62 26.67Microcrystalline cellulose 41.87 45.36 Cross-linked sodium 6.00 39.00carboxymethyl cellulose Magnesium stearate 1.25 1.35 Total 100.0 108.3^(a)equivalent to 25 mg cenicriviroc free base

Notably, the formulation of Table 5 has the same ratio of components asthat of Table 3b, and differs only in the total amount of the componentsthat are used for each tablet. Thus, Table 4 shows tablets with 150 mgcenicriviroc (based on free base), whereas Table CC-1 shows tablets with25 mg cenicriviroc (based on free base) with the same ratio ofcomponents as the 150 mg tablets of Example 2b, shown in Table 4.

Example 4—Reference

The citric acid based formulation of Table 6 was prepared as follows.Cenicriviroc, hydroxypropyl cellulose, mannitol, and cross-linked sodiumcarboxymethyl cellulose were admixed, wet granulated, dried, milled, andblended with microcrystalline cellulose, cross-linked sodiumcarboxymethyl cellulose, citric acid, colloidal silicon dioxide, talc,and magnesium stearate. The resulting blend was compressed into tabletshaving a hardness greater than 10 kP and friability less than 0.8% w/w.The tablets were coated with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, polyethyleneglycol 8000, titanium dioxide, and yellow iron oxide. The coated tabletsthus produced were substantially identical to those disclosed in U.S.Patent Application Publication No. 2008/031942 (see, e.g., Table 3).

TABLE 6 Component mg/tablet % w/w Cenicriviroc mesylate 28.91 4.68Mannitol 341.09 56.85 Microcrystalline cellulose 80.00 12.94 Colloidalsilicon dioxide 12.00 2.00 Citric acid anhydrous 75.00 12.14Hydroxypropyl cellulose 12.00 1.94 Cross-linked sodium carboxymethylcellulose 30.00 4.85 Talc 12.00 1.94 Magnesium stearate 9.00 1.46Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose 11.71 1.89 Polyethylene glycol 8000 2.690.44 Titanium dioxide 3.03 0.49 Yellow iron oxide 0.57 0.09

Example 5—Reference

Cenicriviroc and hypromellose acetate succinate were dissolved inmethanol and spray dried into a fine powder containing 25% cenicrivirocby weight (based on the weight of cenicriviroc free base). The powderwas admixed with colloidal silicon dioxide, microcrystalline cellulose,mannitol, sodium lauryl sulfate, cross-linked sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and magnesium stearate. The admixture was compressed intotablets having a hardness greater than 10 kP and friability less than0.8% w/w. The final composition of the tablets is shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Component Weight % Mass (mg) Cenicriviroc (as mesylate 8.3350.00 salt) Hypromellose acetate 25.00 150.00 succinate Sodium laurylsulfate 2.00 12.00 Cross-linked sodium 6.00 36.00 carboxymethylcellulose Microcrystalline cellulose 27.83 167.00 Mannitol 27.83 167.00Colloidal silicon dioxide 1.00 6.00 Magnesium stearate 2.00 12.00 Total100.0 600.0

Example 6: Bioavailibility of CVC Formulation

The absolute bioavailability of the tablets of Example 3 in beagle dogswas compared to that of the tablets of Examples 4 and 5, as well as toboth an oral solution of cenicriviroc mesylate and a gelatin capsulecontaining cenicriviroc mesylate powder. The results are shown in Table8.

TABLE 8 Component Absolute bioavailability(%) Oral Solution 25.8 Powderin capsule 6.4 Example 3 26.6 Example 4 21.1 Example 5 12.4

This example demonstrates that the bioavailability of cenicriviroc indry granulated tablets with fumaric acid (Ex. 3) is substantiallysimilar to that of an oral solution, and is significantly higher thanthe bioavailability of cenicriviroc in wet granulated tablets withfumaric (Ex. 1b) or citric acid (Ex. 4), and over double that ofcenicriviroc in tablets with amorphous cenicriviroc in a spray drieddispersion with HPMC-AS (Ex. 5). These results are surprising, becausethere was no reason to suspect that dry granulation of crystalline APIprovides a significant increase in bioavailability over wet granulationand amorphous spray dried dispersions. This is especially so becauseamorphous spray dried dispersions are frequently used to increase thebioavailability of poorly water soluble drugs. These results are alsosurprising because fumaric acid has a slower dissolution time thancitric acid and was used at a lower mass ratio of acid relative to CVCAPI (3:1 for citric acid: API versus 1.06:1 fumaric acid:API). Hence itwas therefore surprising that fumaric acid proved to be a more effectivesolubilizer than citric acid for CVC.

Example 7: Accelerated Stability of CVC Formulation

The accelerated stability of the tablets of Example 2b was compared tothat of the tablets of Examples 1b, 4, and 5 via exposure to anenvironment of 75% relative humidity at 40° C. All tablets were packagedwith a desiccant during the study. As shown in FIG. 3, the tablets ofExamples 2b are surprisingly much more stable than the other wetgranulated tablets, and similarly stable as the spray dried dispersiontablets. This difference in stability between the tablets of Examples 2band Example 4 is particularly surprising since the only significantdifference between the two is the method of making the formulations (drygranulation vs. wet granulation). These results are also surprising,because it was not previously known that the method of granulation couldhave an effect on both cenicriviroc bioavailability and stability.

Example 8: Stability of CVC Formulation

The stability of the tablets of Examples 2 and 3 was tested by exposingthe tablets to an environment of 75% relative humidity at 40° C. for sixweeks. All tablets were packaged with a desiccant during the study. Theresults are shown in Table 9, which shows that the tablets are verystable under these conditions.

TABLE 9 Time (Weeks) Water content (%) Strength (%) Total Impurities (%)0 1.5 99.1 1.2 2 1.4 99.2 1.1 4 1.4 98.0 1.0 6 1.4 98.6 1.0

Example 9: Stability of CVC Formulations

Dynamic vapor sorption isotherms at 25° C. correlate to the stability ofthe tablets of Examples 3 and 4 with that of cenicriviroc mesylate.Sorption was performed from 0% relative humidity to 90% relativehumidity at 5% intervals. At each interval, each sample was equilibratedfor no less than 10 minutes and no longer than 30 minutes. Equilibrationwas stopped when the rate of mass increase was no more than 0.03% w/wper minute or after 30 minutes, whichever was shorter. The result, whichappears in FIG. 4, shows that tablets of Example 2b are significantlymore stable than those of Example 4. This result is consistent withExample 3 being significantly less hygroscopic than Example 4. Theincreased hygroscopicity of Example 4, in comparison to Examples 2b, canbe associated with a higher mobile water content which can in turn causepartial gelation and subsequent decreased stability of Example 4.

Example 10: Anti-Fibrotic and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of the DualCCR2 and CCR5 Antagonist Cenicriviroc in a Mouse Model of NASH

Background:

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is characterized by fataccumulation, chronic inflammation (including pro-inflammatory monocytesand macrophages) and when fibrosis is present, it can lead to cirrhosisor hepatocellular carcinoma. There are currently no approved therapiesfor NASH. Evidence suggests that C—C chemokine receptor (CCR) type 2 andits main ligand, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, contribute topro-inflammatory monocyte recruitment in the liver. Cenicriviroc (CVC)is an oral, potent, dual CCR2/CCR5 antagonist that showed favorablesafety and tolerability in a 48-week Phase 2b study in 143HIV-1-infected adults (NCT01338883). CVC was evaluated in a mouse modelof diet-induced NASH that leads to hepatocellular carcinoma; data fromthe first, fibrotic stage of the model are presented.

Methods:

NASH was induced in male mice by a single injection of 200 μgstreptozotocin 2 days after birth (causing impaired glucose control),followed by a high fat diet from 4 weeks of age. From 6 to 9 weeks ofage, 3 groups of animals (n=6/group) were administered CVC doses of 0(vehicle), 20 (low dose) or 100 (high dose) mg/kg/day, via twice dailyoral gavage. Animals were sacrificed at 9 weeks of age, and biochemical,gene expression, and histologic evaluations of the liver were conducted.

Results:

CVC treatment had no effect on body or liver weight, whole bloodglucose, or liver triglycerides. Mean (±SD) alanine aminotransferaselevels were significantly decreased in both CVC treatment groupscompared to control (58±12, 51±13 and 133±80 U/L for low dose, high doseand vehicle, respectively; p<0.05) and liver hydroxyproline tended todecrease in treated groups. By real-time RT-PCR, collagen type 1 mRNA inwhole liver lysates decreased by 27-37% with CVC treatment. Thepercentage of fibrosis area (by Sirius red staining) was significantlydecreased by CVC treatment relative to control (p<0.01): 0.66%±0.16,0.64%±0.19 and 1.10%±0.31 for 20 mg/kg/day, 100 mg/kg/day and control,respectively, when perivascular space was included; 0.29%±0.14,0.20%±0.06, and 0.61%±0.23, respectively, when perivascular space wassubtracted. Importantly, the histologic non-alcoholic fatty liverdisease activity score (score is 0 for untreated mice in this model) wassignificantly decreased with CVC treatment (4.0±0.6, 3.7±0.8 and 5.3±0.5for low dose, high dose and vehicle, respectively; p<0.05), primarilydue to reduced inflammation and ballooning scores. As previously shownin humans, a CVC dose-related compensatory increase in plasma monocytechemotactic protein-1 levels was observed in mice (1.1- and 1.5-foldincrease for low and high dose, respectively), consistent withantagonism of CCR2.

Conclusions:

These data suggest that CVC, an investigational agent currently in humantrials for HIV-1, has anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory activity in amouse model of NASH, warranting clinical investigation. These findingsprovide further evidence that disrupting the CCR2/monocyte chemotacticprotein-1 axis may be a novel treatment approach for NASH.

Example 11: Significant Anti-Fibrotic Activity of Cenicriviroc, a DualCCR2/CCR5 Antagonist, in a Rat Model of Thioacetamide-Induced LiverFibrosis and Cirrhosis

Background:

C—C chemokine receptor (CCR) types 2 and 5 are expressed onpro-inflammatory monocytes and macrophages, Kupffer cells and hepaticstellate cells (HSCs), which contribute to inflammation and fibrogenesisin the liver. Cenicriviroc (CVC; novel, potent, oral, dual CCR2/CCR5antagonist) had favorable safety/tolerability in a 48-week Phase 2bstudy in 143 HIV-1-infected adults (NCT01338883). This study evaluatesthe in vivo anti-fibrotic effect of CVC, and timing of treatmentintervention relative to disease onset, in rats with emerging hepaticfibrosis due to thioacetamide (TAA)-induced injury.

Methods:

Fibrosis was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats by intraperitonealadministration of TAA 150 mg/kg 3 times/week for 8 weeks. Rats(n=4-8/group) received CVC 30 mg/kg/day (a), CVC 100 mg/kg/day (b) orvehicle control (c), concurrently with TAA for the first 8 weeks (Group1; early intervention), during Weeks 4-8 (Group 2; emerging fibrosis) orduring Weeks 8-12 following completion of TAA administration (Group 3;cirrhosis reversal). Biochemical, gene expression and histologicevaluations of the liver were conducted.

Results:

When started concurrently with TAA (Group 1), CVC at 30 mg (Group 1a)and 100 mg (Group 1b) significantly reduced fibrosis (by 49% and 38%,respectively; p<0.001), as assessed by collagen morphometry. Proteinlevels for collagen type 1 were reduced by 30% and 12% for Groups 1a and1b, respectively, while α-SMA was reduced by 17% and 22%, respectively.When treatment started 4 weeks after TAA-induced injury (Group 2), astatistically significant anti-fibrotic effect was observed for CVC 30mg (Group 2a, 36% reduction in collagen; p<0.001), but not for CVC 100mg (Group 2b). When treatment was started at Week 8 (cirrhosis present)and continued for 4 weeks (Group 3), there was no significant effect ofCVC on fibrogenic gene expression or fibrosis.

Conclusions:

CVC is a potent anti-fibrotic agent in non-cirrhotic hepatic fibrosisdue to TAA. The drug was effective in early intervention (Group 1) andin emerging fibrosis (Group 2a), but not when cirrhosis was alreadyestablished (Group 3).

Example 12: Anti-Fibrotic Activity of Dual CCR5/CCR2 AntagonistCenicriviroc in a Mouse Model of Renal Fibrosis

Background:

Cenicriviroc (CVC) is a novel, oral, once-daily, dual CCR5/CCR2antagonist that has completed Phase 2b HIV development (Study 202;NCT01338883). CVC has a favorable safety profile with 555 subjectshaving been treated with at least one dose, including 115 HIV-1-infectedadults treated with CVC over a 48-week duration. Recently, CVCdemonstrated significant anti-fibrotic activity in a mouse model ofdiet-induced, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and a rat model ofthioacetamide-induced fibrosis. Here, we evaluated CVC in awell-established mouse model of renal fibrosis induced by unilateralureter occlusion (UUO).

Methodology:

Test animals were allocated to weight-matched treatment groups on theday prior to the surgical procedure (Day −1). Male CD-1 mice (N=51; age,7-8 weeks) underwent either sham surgery or total ligation of the rightureter, i.e. UUO, via aseptic laparotomy (FIG. 5). From Days 0 to 5:mice undergoing sham surgery received vehicle control (0.5%methylcellulose+1% Tween-80) via twice-daily oral gavage; mice withpermanent UUO received either vehicle control, CVC 7 mg/kg/day or CVC 20mg/kg/day via twice-daily oral gavage. Another group received theanti-transforming growth factor TGF-β1 antibody, compound 1D11 (positivecontrol) at 3 mg/kg/day from Days −1 to 4, injected intraperitoneallyonce daily, and vehicle control from Days 0 to 5. A CVC 100 mg/kg/daygroup (N=9) was initially included in the study but was terminated earlydue to moribundity (no analyses were conducted because no animal reachedDay 5). CVC doses up to 2000 mg/kg/day were well tolerated in mousetoxicity studies that did not involve surgical procedures. On Day 5,animals were anaesthetised, blood and tissues were collected prior tosacrifice.

Study Endpoints:

Study endpoints included: a) body and kidney weights; b) fibrosis inobstructed kidney evaluated via histological quantitative image analysisof picrosirius red staining (ten images/depth/kidney obtained andassessed in a blinded fashion using light microscopy [at 200×] to enablesampling of 60-70% of the renal cortical area) and quantified by acomposite Collagen Volume Fraction (CVF [% total area imaged]) scoreexpressed as the average positive stain across three anatomicallydistinct (200-250 μM apart) tissue sections, or depths, from theobstructed kidney; c) hydroxyproline content of frozen renal corticaltissue biopsies as assessed by biochemical analyses; d) mRNA expressionof profibrotic and inflammatory biomarkers (including MCP-1, Collagen1a1, Collagen 3a1, TGF-β1, Fibronectin-1, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA)and connective tissue growth factor-1 (CTGF-1); assessed via Luminex®(Life Technologies™, Carlsbad, Calif., USA) assay with relativeexpression normalised to HPRT (hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase).

Statistical Analysis:

Data are expressed as mean±standard error of mean (SEM). Statisticalanalyses were performed using GraphPad Prism® (GraphPad Software, Inc.,San Diego, Calif., USA). Treatment differences betweensham-surgery+vehiclecontrol and UUO+vehicle-control groups, and betweenUUO+vehicle-control and UUO+compound-1D11 (positive control) groups,were analysed by unpaired t-Test. Treatment differences betweenUUO+vehicle-control and CVC-dose groups were analysed by one-way ANOVA(analysis of variance) with Dunnett's test (post-hoc).

Methods:

CVC demonstrated significant antifibrotic effects, as defined byreductions in Collagen Volume Fraction or CVF (% area stained positivelyfor collagen in histological obstructed-kidney sections), in awell-established mouse UUO model of renal fibrosis. Trends were observedfor decreases in Collagen 1a1, Collagen 3a1, TGF-β1 and Fibronectin-1mRNA expression in the obstructed kidney, but these did not achievestatistical significance. Taken together, CVC's mode of action,antifibrotic activity in animal models (kidney and liver), and extensivesafety database support further evaluation in fibrotic diseases. Aproof-of-concept study in non-HIV-infected patients with NASH and liverfibrosis is planned. Phase III trials in HIV-1-infected patients arealso planned to evaluate a fixed-dose combination of CVC/lamivudine(3TC) as a novel ‘backbone’ versus tenofovir disoproxilfumarate/emtricitabine (TDF/FTC) when co-administered withguideline-preferred third agents.

Results:

Body weight and obstructed kidney weight: CVC 7 mg/kg/day and compound1D11 (positive control) had no effect on body weight, whereas CVC 20mg/kg/day led to a modest, but significant, decrease (5%) in bodyweight, relative to that of the UUO+vehicle-control group at Day 5(p<0.05) (FIG. 6; change in body weight shown in grams [g]). Nosignificant treatment effects (CVC or compound 1D11 [positive control])were observed on obstructed or contralateral kidney weight or kidneyweight index versus the UUO+vehicle-control group (data not shown).Histology: The composite measure of CVF (% area averaged across threedepths [±SEM]) was significantly higher in the UUO+vehicle-control groupcompared with that in the sham-surgery group (11.4±1.0-fold; p<0.05)(FIG. 7). CVC 7 and 20 mg/kg/day and compound 1D11 (positive control)significantly attenuated UUO-induced increases in the composite measureof CVF (averaged across three depths [±SEM]) relative to that of theUUO+vehicle-control group (28.6±8.8%, 31.8±6.8% and 50.3±7.3% reduction,respectively; p<0.05).

Hydroxyproline Content:

Hydroxyproline content (% of protein) in obstructed kidneys from theUUO+vehicle-control group increased significantly relative to thesham-surgery group (0.72% vs 0.27%; p<0.05) (data not shown). Neitherdose of CVC tested affected UUO-induced increases in obstructed kidneyhydroxyproline content relative to the UUO+vehicle-control group;however, the compound 1D11 (positive control) group had significantlylower levels (0.55% vs 0.72%; p<0.05) (data not shown).

Profibrotic and Inflammatory Biomarker mRNA Expression:

For each of the biomarkers evaluated (MCP-1, Collagen 1a1, Collagen 3a1,TGF-β1, Fibronectin-1, α-SMA and CTGF-1), expression of mRNA in theUUO+vehicle-control group increased significantly compared with that inthe shamsurgery group (p<0.05) (FIG. 8). CVC 7 and 20 mg/kg/dayattenuated UUO-induced increases in Collagen 1a1, Collagen 3a1, TGF-β1and Fibronectin-1 mRNA expression. However, these reductions, comparedwith the UUO+vehicle-control group, did not reach statisticalsignificance. Compound 1D11 (positive control) significantly reducedUUO-induced increases in mRNA expression of Collagen 1a1, Collagen 3a1,TGF-β1 and Fibronectin-1 relative to the UUO+vehicle-control group(p<0.05). CVC 7 and 20 mg/kg/day and compound 1D11 (positive control)did not have significant effects on UUO-induced increases in obstructedkidney cortical MCP-1, α-SMA and CTGF-1 mRNA expression, compared withthe UUO+vehicle-control group (data not shown for α-SMA and CTGF-1mRNA).

Conclusions:

CVC demonstrated significant antifibrotic effects, as defined byreductions in Collagen Volume Fraction or CVF (% area stained positivelyfor collagen in histological obstructed-kidney sections), in awell-established mouse UUO model of renal fibrosis. Trends were observedfor decreases in Collagen 1a1, Collagen 3a1, TGF-β1 and Fibronectin-1mRNA expression in the obstructed kidney, but these did not achievestatistical significance. Taken together, CVC's mode of action,antifibrotic activity in animal models (kidney and liver), and extensivesafety database support further evaluation in fibrotic diseases. Aproof-of-concept study in non-HIV-infected patients with NASH and liverfibrosis is planned. Phase III trials in HIV-1-infected patients arealso planned to evaluate a fixed-dose combination of CVC/lamivudine(3TC) as a novel ‘backbone’ versus tenofovir disoproxilfumarate/emtricitabine (TDF/FTC) when co-administered withguideline-preferred third agents.

Example 13: Improvements in APRI and FIB-4 Fibrosis Scores Correlatewith Decreases in sCD14 in HIV-1 Infected Adults Receiving CenicrivirocOver 48 Weeks

Background and Aims:

Cenicriviroc (CVC), a novel, oral, once-daily CCR2/CCR5 antagonist, hasdemonstrated favorable safety and anti-HIV activity in clinical trials.CVC demonstrated antifibrotic activity in two animal models of liverdisease. Post-hoc analyses were conducted on APRI and FIB-4 scores inStudy 202 (NCT01338883).

Methods:

143 adults with CCR5 tropic HIV-1, BMI≤35 kg/m2 and no apparent liverdisease (ie, ALT/AST Grade≤2, total bilirubin≤ULN, no HBV, HCV, activeor chronic liver disease, or cirrhosis) were randomized 4:1 to CVC orefavirenz (EFV). APRI and FIB-4 scores were calculated. Change in scorecategory from baseline (BL) to Weeks 24 and 48 was assessed in patientswith non-missing data. Correlations between changes from BL in APRI andFIB-4 scores, and MCP-1 (CCR2 ligand) and sCD14 (inflammatory biomarker)levels were evaluated.

Results:

At BL, more patients on CVC than EFV had APRI≥0.5 and FIB-4≥1.45;proportion of CVC patients above these thresholds decreased at Weeks 24and 48 (Table 10). Significant correlations were observed at Week 24between changes in APRI score and MCP-1 levels (p=0.014), and betweenFIB-4 score and sCD14 levels (p=0.011), and at Week 48, between changesin APRI (p=0.028) and FIB-4 scores (p=0.007) and sCD14 levels. (Table10).

TABLE 10 CVC EFV Fibrosis Baseline Week 24 Week 48 Baseline Week 24 Week48 index (n = 113) (n = 92) (n = 80) (n = 28) (n = 20) (n = 17) APRI<0.5 84% 93% 91%  96% 100% 100%  category  0.5-1.5 14%  7% 8%  4% —— >1.5  2% — 1% — — — Decreased 1 N/A 14% 10%  N/A  5% 6% category frombaseline FIB-4 <1.45 82% 93% 94%  100%  100% 94%  category 1.45-3.25 17% 7% 5% — — 6% >3.25  1% — 1% — — — Decreased 1 N/A 13% 14%  N/A — —category from baseline

Conclusions:

In this population with no apparent liver disease, CVC treatment wasassociated with improvements in APRI and FIB-4 scores, and correlationswere observed between changes in APRI and FIB-4 scores and sCD14 levelsat Week 48. Proven CCR2/CCR5 antagonism, antifibrotic effects in animalmodels and extensive clinical safety data all support clinical studiesof CVC in liver fibrosis.

Example 14: In Vivo Efficacy Study of Cenicriviroc in STAM Model ofNon-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis

This in vivo efficacy study was performed to examine the effects ofCenicriviroc in the STAM™ mouse model of Non-alcoholic Steatohepatitis.

Materials and Methods Experimental Design and Treatment Study Groups

Group 1—Vehicle: Eighteen NASH mice were orally administered vehicle ata volume of 10 mL/kg twice daily (9:00 and 19:00) from 6 weeks of age.

Group 2—Cenicriviroc 20 mg/kg (CVC-low): Eighteen NASH mice were orallyadministered vehicle supplemented with Cenicriviroc at a dose of 10mg/kg twice daily (20 mg/kg/day) (9:00 and 19:00) from 6 weeks of age.

Group 3—Cenicriviroc 100 mg/kg (CVC-high): Eighteen NASH mice wereorally administered vehicle supplemented with Cenicriviroc at a dose of50 mg/kg twice daily (100 mg/kg/day) (9:00 and 19:00) from 6 weeks ofage.

Table 11 summarizes the treatment schedule:

TABLE 11 No. Dose Volume Sacrifice Group mice Mice Test substance(mg/kg) (mL/kg) Regimen (wks) 1 18 STAM Vehicle — 10 Oral, twice daily,9 and 18 6-9 wks, 6-18 wks 2 18 STAM CVC-low  20 10 Oral, twice daily,6-9 wks, 9 and 18 6-18 wks 3 18 STAM CVC-high 100 10 Oral, twice daily,6-9 wks, 9 and 18 6-18 wks

Results Part 1: Study for Assessing the Anti-NASH/Fibrosis Effects ofCVC

Body weight changes and general condition until Week 9 (FIG. 9)

Body weight gradually increased during the treatment period. There wereno significant differences in mean body weight between the Vehicle groupand either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups during the treatmentperiod. None of the animals in the present study showed deterioration ingeneral condition throughout the treatment period.

Body weight at the day of sacrifice at Week 9 (FIG. 10A and Table 12)

There were no significant differences in mean body weight between theVehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle:18.9±3.3 g, CVC-low: 19.5±2.0 g, CVC-high: 18.7±0.9 g).

TABLE 12 Body Weight and Liver Weight at Week 9 Parameter VehicleCenicriviroc-low Cenicriviroc-high (Mean ± SD) (n = 6) (n = 6) (n = 6)Body weight (g) 18.9 ± 3.3 19.5 ± 2.0 18.7 ± 0.9 Liver weight (mg) 1270± 326 1334 ± 99  1307 ± 119 Liver-to-body  6.6 ± 0.8  6.9 ± 1.0  7.0 ±0.8 weight ratio (%)

Liver weight and liver-to-body weight ratio at week 9 (FIGS. 10 B & Cand Table 12)

There were no significant differences in mean liver weight between theVehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle:1270±326 mg, CVC-low: 1334±99 mg, CVC-high: 1307±119 mg).

There were no significant differences in mean liver-to-body weight ratiobetween the Vehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups(Vehicle: 6.6±0.8%, CVC-low: 6.9±1.0%, CVC-high: 7.0±0.8%).

Whole Blood and Biochemistry at Week 9

Whole blood glucose data are shown in FIGS. 11A-D and Table 13.

There were no significant differences in blood glucose levels betweenthe Vehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups(Vehicle: 590±108 mg/dL, CVC-low: 585±91 mg/dL, CVC-high: 585±91 mg/dL).4.4.2. Plasma ALT (FIG. 11B, Table 14). The CVC-low and the CVC-highgroups showed significant decreased in plasma ALT levels compared withVehicle group (Vehicle: 133±80 U/L, CVC-low: 58±12 U/L, CVC-high: 52±13U/L).

TABLE 13 Blood and Liver Biochemistry at Week 9 Cenicriviroc-Cenicriviroc- Parameter Vehicle low high (Mean ± SD) (n = 6) (n = 6) (n= 6) Whole blood glucose (mg/dL) 590 ± 108 585 ± 91  585 ± 91  PlasmaALT (U/L) 133 ± 80  58 ± 12 52 ± 13 Plasma MCP-1 (pg/mL) 60 ± 4  68 ± 1691 ± 14 Plasma MIP-18 (pg/mL) 18 ± 5  18 ± 2  20 ± 4  Liver triglyceride(mg/g liver) 40.8 ± 20.4 48.5 ± 16.1 51.7 ± 14.1 Liver hydroxyproline0.75 ± 0.18 0.63 ± 0.05 0.62 ± 0.09 (ug/mg total protein)

Plasma MCP-1 data are shown in FIG. 11C and Table 13. The CVC-high groupshowed a significant increase in plasma MCP-1 levels compared with theVehicle group. There were no significant differences in plasma MCP-1levels between the Vehicle group and the CVC-low group (Vehicle: 60±4pg/mL, CVC-low: 68±16 pg/mL, CVC-high: 91±14 pg/mL).

Plasma MIP-1β data are shown in FIG. 11D, Table 13. There were nosignificant differences in plasma MIP-1β levels between the Vehiclegroup and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle: 18±5pg/mL, CVC-low: 18±2 pg/mL, CVC-high: 20±4 pg/mL).

Liver Biochemistry at Week 9

Liver triglyceride content data are shown in FIG. 11D and Table 13.There were no significant differences in liver triglyceride contentbetween the Vehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups(Vehicle: 40.8±20.4 mg/g liver, CVC-low: 48.5±16.1 mg/g liver, CVC-high:51.7±14.1 mg/g liver).

Liver hydroxyproline content data are shown in FIG. 11E and Table 13.The liver hydroxyproline content tended to decease in the CVC-low andthe CVC-high groups compared with the Vehicle group (Vehicle: 0.75±0.18μg/mg, CVC-low: 0.63±0.05 μg/mg, CVC-high: 0.62±0.09 μg/mg).

Histological Analyses at Week 9

HE staining and NAFLD Activity score data are shown in FIGS. 12 and 13,and Table 15. Liver sections from the Vehicle group exhibited severemicro- and macrovesicular fat deposition, hepatocellular ballooning andinflammatory cell infiltration. The CVC-low and the CVC-high groupsshowed moderate improvements in inflammatory cell infiltration andhepatocellular ballooning, with a significant reduction in NAS comparedwith the Vehicle group (Vehicle: 5.3±0.5, CVC-low: 4.0±0.6, CVC-high:3.7±0.8). Representative photomicrographs of the HE-stained sections areshown in FIG. 12.

TABLE 14 NAFLD Activity Score at Week 9 Score Lobular HepatocyteSteatosis inflammation ballooning NAS Group n 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2(Mean ± SD) Vehicle 6 — 4 2 — — — 6 — — — 6 5.3 ± 0.5 Cenicriviroc-low 6— 6 — — — 3 3 — — 3 3 4.0 ± 0.6 Cenicriviroc-high 6 1 5 — — 3 3 1 2 33.7 ± 0.8 Definition of NAS Components Item Score Extent Steatosis 0   <5% 1  5-33% 2 >33-66% 3   >66% Hepatocyte 0 None Ballooning 1 Fewballoon cells 2 Many cells/prominent ballooning Lobular 0 No fociInflammation 1 <2 foci/200x 2 2-4 foci/200x 3 >4 foci/200x

Sirius red staining data are shown in FIGS. 14, 15, and 16, and Table15. Liver sections from the Vehicle group showed collagen deposition inthe pericentral region of the liver lobule. Compared with the Vehiclegroup, collagen deposition in the pericentral region was markedlyreduced in the CVC-low and the CVC-high groups. The fibrosis area(Sirius red-positive area) significantly decreased in the CVC-low andthe CVC-high groups compared with the Vehicle group (Vehicle:1.10±0.31%, CVC-low: 0.66±0.16%, CVC-high: 0.64±0.19%). The modifiedfibrosis areas were also significantly reduced in the CVC-low and theCVC-high groups compared with the Vehicle group (Vehicle: 0.61±0.23%,CVC-low: 0.29±0.14%, CVC-high: 0.20±0.06%).

TABLE 15 Histological Analyses at Week 9 Parameter VehicleCenicriviroc-low Cenicriviroc-high (Mean ± SD) (n = 6) (n = 6) (n = 6)Sirius red-positive area (%) 1.10 ± 0.31 0.66 ± 0.16 0.64 ± 0.19Modified Sirius red-positive rea 0.61 ± 0.23 0.29 ± 0.14 0.20 ± 0.06F4/80-positive area (%) 4.99 ± 1.10 4.77 ± 1.02 4.96 ± 0.60 F4/80 andCD206-positive cells (%) 34.3 ± 4.2  34.7 ± 6.3  33.1 ± 3.0  F4/80 andCDE 16/32-positive cells (%) 33.5 ± 3.7  38.7 ± 7.6  41.5 ± 8.2  M1/M2ratio (%) 99.6 ± 20.2 112.3 ± 17.0  125.1 ± 21.9  Oil red-positive area(%) 9.66 ± 5.02 6.51 ± 3.88 7.23 ± 3.59 TUNEL-positive cells (%) 36.0 ±3.7  43.3 ± 2.9  39.0 + 5.3  Cenicriviroc-high Total Total PositiveModified Modified Modified Mouse Photo area positive area perivascularpositive area positive area positive area ID No. (pix) (pix) area (pix)(pix) (%) (%) 301 1 1264424 9749 6409 3340 0.26 0.18 2 1291238 3234 2491743 0.06 3 1289200 4737 3491 1246 0.10 4 1252731 17225 12045 5180 0.41 51277575 6253 5119 1134 0.09 302 1 1217885 16038 13242 2796 0.23 0.20 21248706 7010 4876 2134 0.17 3 1253036 14194 10634 3560 0.28 4 13018984914 2070 2844 0.22 5 1268269 7439 6404 1035 0.08 303 1 1285828 43063322 984 0.08 0.12 2 1297994 2159 1550 609 0.05 3 1279156 3201 2025 11760.09 4 1285026 12648 8537 4111 0.32 5 1285009 4011 3119 892 0.07 304 11294810 3685 1677 2008 0.16 0.26 2 1274697 2221 1222 999 0.08 3 128600111356 8814 2542 0.20 4 1236232 10705 8252 2453 0.20 5 1217017 1876110537 8224 0.68 305 1 1287425 5774 2832 2942 0.23 0.17 2 1278985 26381733 905 0.07 3 1272127 7654 4214 3440 0.27 4 1289371 5726 3563 21630.17 5 1200639 3654 2171 1483 0.12 306 1 1236260 6253 2852 3401 0.280.27 2 1270484 12655 11196 1459 0.11 3 1144610 20504 12793 7711 0.67 41292425 7266 4401 2865 0.22 5 1295488 1921 976 945 0.07

Representative photomicrographs of Sirius red-stained sections of liversare shown in FIG. 14.

F4/80 immunohistochemistry data are shown FIGS. 15 and 16, and Table 15.F4/80 immunostaining of liver sections form the Vehicle groupdemonstrated accumulation of F4/80+ cells in the liver lobule. Therewere no significant differences in the number and size of F4/80+ cellsbetween the Vehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups,as well as in the percentage of inflammation area (F4/80-positive area)(Vehicle: 4.99±1.10%, CVC-low: 4.77±1.02%, CVC-high: 4.96±0.60%).

Representative photomicrographs of the F4/80-immunostained sections areshown in FIG. 15.

F4/80+CD206+ and F4/80+CD16/32+ immunohistochemistry data are shown inFIGS. 17-21, and Table 15). There were no significant differences in thepercentages of F4/80+CD206+ cells in macrophages between the Vehiclegroup and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle: 34.3±4.2%,CVC-low: 34.7±6.3%, CVC-high: 33.1±3.0%). There was no significantdifference in the percentages of F4/80+CD16/32+ cells in macrophagesbetween the Vehicle group and the CVC-low group. The percentages ofF4/80+CD16/32+ cells tended to increase in the CVC-high group comparedwith the Vehicle (Vehicle: 33.5±3.7%, CVC-low: 38.7±7.6%, CVC-high:41.5±8.2%). There was no significant difference in the M1/M2 ratiobetween the Vehicle group and the CVC-low group. In the CVC-high group,the M1/M2 ratio tended to increase compared with the Vehicle (Vehicle:99.6±20.2%, CVC-low: 112.3±17.0%, CVC-high: 125.1±21.9%).

Representative photomicrographs of the F4/80 and CD206, F4/80 andCD16/32 double-immunostained sections are shown in FIGS. 17 and 19.

Oil red staining data are shown in FIGS. 22, 23, and Table 15. Therewere no significant differences in the fat deposition between theVehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups, as well asin the percentage of fat deposition area (oil-positive area) (Vehicle:9.66±5.02%, CVC-low: 6.51±3.88%, CVC-high: 7.23±3.59%).

Representative photomicrographs of the oil red-stained sections areshown in FIG. 22.

TUNEL staining data are shown in FIGS. 23, 25 and Table 15. Thepercentages of TUNEL-positive cells significantly increased in theCVC-low group compared with the Vehicle group. There was no significantdifference in percentages of TUNEL-positive cells between the Vehiclegroup and the CVC-high group (Vehicle: 36.0±3.7%, CVC-low: 43.3±2.9%,CVC-high: 39.0±5.3%).

Representative photomicrographs of TUNEL-positive cells in livers areshown in FIG. 24.

Gene Expression Analysis at Week 9 data are shown in FIG. 26 and Tables16-17.

TABLE 16 Gene Expression Analysis at Week 9 Parameter VehicleCenicriviroc-low Cenicriviroc-high (Mean ± SD) (n = 6) (n = 6) (n = 6)TNF-a 1.0 ± 0.24 1.16 ± 0.39 1.09 ± 0.23 MCP-1 1.0 ± 0.31 1.05 ± 0.501.00 ± 0.53 Collagen Type 1 1.0 ± 0.42 0.63 ± 0.10 0.73 ± 0.04 TIMP-11.00 ± 0.46  0.75 ± 0.32 0.80 ± 0.20

TABLE 17 P values at Week 9 P values (Student's t-test, LiverLiver-to-body one-tailed) Body weight weight weight ratio Vehicle v.s.Cenicriviroc- 0.3517 0.3265 0.2732 low v.s. Cenicriviroc- 0.4487 0.39930.1929 high P values (Student's t-test, Whole blood Plasma Plasma PlasmaLiver Liver one-tailed) glucose ALT MCP-1 MP-18 triglyceridehydroxyproline Vehicle v.s. Cenicriviroc-low 0.4629 0.0239 0.1329 0.38610.2421 0.0794 v.s. Cenicriviroc-high 0.4651 0.0177 0.0003 0.1587 0.15450.0661 P values (Student's t-test, Collagen one-tailed) TNF-a MCP-1 type1 TMP-1 Vehicle v.s. Cenicriviroc-low 0.2054 0.4149 0.0312 0.1473 v.s.Cenicriviroc-high 0.2611 0.4982 0.0738 0.173 Modified F4/80 and F4/80and NAFLD Sinus red- Sirius red- F4/80- CD206 CD16/32 Oil red- TUNEL- Pvalues (Student's t-test, Activity positive positive positive positivepositive M1/M2 positive positive one-tailed) score area area area cellscells ratio area cells Vehicle v.s. Cenicriviroc-low 0.0013 0.00580.0067 0.3633 0.4525 0.0818 0.1333 0.1261 0.0017 v.s. Cenicriviroc-high0.0009 0.0054 0.0008 0.0481 0.292 0.0273 0.0311 0.1791 0.1416

TNFα

There were no significant differences in TNFα mRNA expression levelsbetween the Vehicle group and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups(Vehicle: 1.00±0.24, CVC-low: 1.16±0.39, CVC-high: 1.09±0.23).

MCP-1

There were no significant differences in MCP-1 mRNA between the Vehiclegroup and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle: 1.00±0.31,CVC-low: 1.05±0.50, CVC-high: 1.00±0.53).

Collagen Type 1

Collagen Type 1 mRNA expression levels were significantly down-regulatedin the CVC-low group compared with the Vehicle group. Collagen Type 1mRNA expression levels tended to be down-regulated in the CVC-high groupcompared with the Vehicle group. (Vehicle: 1.00±0.42, CVC-low:0.63±0.10, CVC-high: 0.73±0.04).

TIMP-1

There were no significant differences in TIMP-1 mRNA expression levelsbetween the Vehicle group and either the CVC-low and the CVC-high groups(Vehicle: 1.00±0.46, CVC-low: 0.75±0.32, CVC-high: 0.80±0.20).

Part 2: Study for Assessing the Anti-HCC Effects of CVC Body WeightChanges Until Week 18 (FIG. 28)

Body weight gradually increased during the treatment period. There wereno significant differences in mean body weight between the Vehicle groupand either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups during the treatmentperiod.

Survival analysis data are shown in FIG. 29. Four out of twelve micedied at day 59 (ID112), day 75 (ID113, 115) and day 84 (ID116) in theVehicle group (The first day of administration was designed as day 0).Six out of twelve mice died at day 62 (ID209), day 64 (ID217), day 75(ID212), day 76 (ID213), day 84 (ID215) and day 86 (ID208) in theCVC-low group. Five out of twelve mice died at day 62 (ID317), day 65(ID312), day 70 (ID316), day 78 (ID314) and day 85 (ID309) in theCVC-high group. There were no abnormal necropsy findings in the deadanimals except for the typical hepatic lesions of NASH. There were nosignificant differences in survival rate between the Vehicle group andeither the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups. By consigner instruction, therest of the animals were sacrificed earlier than scheduled at 18 weeksof age (scheduled sacrificed at 20 weeks of age).

Body Weight at the Day of Sacrifice at Week 18 data are shown in FIG.30A and Table 18. The body weight tended to decrease in the CVC-highgroup compared with the Vehicle group. There was no significantdifference in mean body weight between the Vehicle group and the CVC-lowgroup (Vehicle: 23.0±2.3 g, CVC-low: 22.9±3.5 g, CVC-high: 20.8±2.7 g).

TABLE 18 Body Weight and Liver Weight at Week 18 Parameter VehicleCenicriviroc-low Cenicriviroc-high (Mean ± SD) (n = 8) (n = 6) (n = 7)Body weight (g) 23.0 ± 2.3 22.9 ± 3.5 20.8 ± 2.7 Liver weight (mg) 1782± 558 1837 ± 410 1817 ± 446 Liver-to-body  7.7 ± 2.2  8.3 ± 2.8  8.8 ±2.3 weight ratio (%)

Liver Weight and Liver-to-Body Weight Ratio at Week 18 data are shown inFIGS. 30B & C and Table 18. There were no significant differences inmean liver weight between the Vehicle group and either the CVC-low orthe CVC-high groups (Vehicle: 1782±558 mg, CVC-low: 1837±410 mg,CVC-high: 1817±446 mg). There were no significant differences in meanliver-to-body weight ratio between the Vehicle group and either theCVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle: 7.7±2.2%, CVC-low: 8.3±2.8%,CVC-high: 8.8±2.3%).

Macroscopic Analyses of Liver at Week 18

Macroscopic appearance of livers is shown in FIGS. 31A-C.

Number of visible tumor nodules formed on liver surface are shown inFIG. 32 and Table 29. There were no significant differences in thenumber of hepatic tumor nodules per individual mouse between the Vehiclegroup and either the CVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle: 2.4±4.1,CVC-low: 1.5±1.9, CVC-high: 3.6±2.5).

TABLE 19 Macroscopic Analyses of Liver at Week 18 Parameter VehicleCenicriviroc-low Cenicriviroc-high (Mean ± SD) (n = 8) (n = 6) (n = 7)Number of visible 2.4 ± 4.1 1.5 ± 1.9 3.6 ± 2.5 tumor nodules Maximumdiameter of 4.0 ± 4.7 4.8 ± 5.4 5.3 ± 5.1 visible tumor nodules (mm)

Maximum diameters of visible tumor nodules formed on liver surface areshown in FIG. 33 and Table 19. There were no significant differences inmaximum diameter of tumor between the Vehicle group and either theCVC-low or the CVC-high groups (Vehicle: 4.0±4.7 mm, CVC-low: 4.8±5.4mm, CVC-high: 5.3±5.1 mm).

Histological Analyses at Week 18

HE staining data are shown in FIG. 34. HE staining revealed infiltrationof inflammatory cells, macro- and microvesicular fat deposition,hepatocellular ballooning, altered foci and nodular lesions in theVehicle group. Six out of eight mice in the Vehicle group exhibited HCClesions. HCC lesions were detected in five out of six mice in theCVC-low group and six out of seven mice in the CVC-high group. Noobvious differences were found between the Vehicle group and either theCVC-low or the CVC-high groups.

Representative photomicrographs of the HE-stained sections are shown inFIG. 34.

GS immunohistochemistry data are shown in FIG. 35. GS-positive nodulesin the sections were detected in six out of eight mice in the Vehiclegroup, five out of six mice in the CVC-low group and seven out of sevenmice in the CVC-high group, respectively.

Representative photomicrographs of the GS-stained sections are shown inFIG. 35.

CD31 immunohistochemistry data are shown in FIGS. 36 and 37 and Table20. The CD31-positive area tended to decrease in the CVC-low groupcompared with the Vehicle group. The CD31-positive area tended toincrease in the CVC-high group compared with the Vehicle group (Vehicle:2.71±1.36%, CVC-low: 1.47±1.10%, CVC-high: 3.68±1.37%).

Representative photomicrographs of the CD31-stained sections are shownin FIG. 36.

TABLE 20 Histological Analyses at Week 18 Parameter VehicleCenicriviroc-low Cenicriviroc-high (Mean ± SD) (n = 8) (n = 6) (n = 7)CD31-positive area 2.71 ± 1.36 1.47 ± 1.10 3.68 ± 1.37 (%)

TABLE 21 P Values at Week 18 The Maximum Liver-to- number of diameter ofbody visible visible CD31- P value (Student's t- Body Liver weight tumortumor positive test, one-tailed) Weight Weight ratio nodules nodulesarea Vehicle vs 0.4758 0.4215 0.341 0.3191 0.3812 0.0456Cenicriviroc-low Vehicle vs 0.0574 0.4476 0.184 0.2578 0.3096 0.0972Cenicriviroc-high Survival P values (Logrank-test) Curve Vehicle vs0.7513 Cenicriviroc-low Vehicle vs 0.5701 Cenicriviroc-high

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

In the analyses at week 9, treatment with low and high dose of CVCsignificantly reduced fibrosis area in a dose dependent manner,demonstrating anti-fibrotic effect of CVC in the present study.Treatment with low and high dose of CVC also reduced the mRNA expressionlevels of Collagen Type 1 and liver hydroxyproline content, supportingits anti-fibrotic property. CVC treatment groups significantly decreasedplasma ALT levels and NAS compared with the Vehicle group in a dosedependent manner. The improvement in NAS was attributable to thereduction in lobular inflammation and hepatocyte ballooning. Sincehepatocyte ballooning is derived from oxidative stress-inducedhepatocellular damage and is associated with disease progression of NASH[26; 27], it is strongly suggested that CVC improved NASH pathology byinhibiting hepatocyte damage and ballooning. Together, CVC havepotential anti-NASH and hepatoprotective effects in this study.

As shown in humans, plasma MCP-1 levels increased by the treatment withCVC in the present study, indicating dose-dependent antagonism of CCR2by CVC, but plasma MIP-1β levels did not show any significant changes bythe treatment. To investigate the mechanism of action of CVC, weevaluated the effect of CVC on population of the macrophages.Preliminary results demonstrated that CVC showed the tendency of highM1/M2 ratio compared with Vehicle group, suggesting that CVC mightinhibit the fibrogenesis by regulating the balance of macrophagesubpopulation in the inflamed liver. This will be further investigatedin the future.

In the analyses at week 18, the effect on NASH-derived HCC was notobserved in the CVC treatment groups. In conclusion, CVC showedanti-NASH, hepatoprotective and anti-fibrotic effects in the presentstudy.

Example 15: Long-Term Efficacy Data in HIV-1 Infected Adult SubjectsEfficacy Results of Study 202 Study Design and Objectives

As described in US Application Nos. 61/968,829 and 62/024,713 (bothherein indorporated by reference in their entireties, for all purposes)analysis of randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, 48-week comparativestudy evaluating efficacy and safety of CVC 100 mg and CVC 200 mgcompared to approved antiretroviral agent efavirenz (EFV, Sustiva®)(Study 202) showed CVC administration has an anti-fibrotic effect.

Biomarkers of Inflammation

As an exploratory analysis, levels of inflammation biomarkers MCP-1,sCD14, high sensitivity C-reactive protein [hs-CRP], interleukin-6[IL-6], D-dimer, and fibrinogen) were measured. Baseline values andchanges from baseline at Week 24 and Week 48 of MCP-1, sCD14, hs-CRP,IL-6, D-dimer, and fibrinogen are summarized in Table 22.

TABLE 22 CVC CVC EFV 100 mg 200 mg 600 mg Mean (SE) Mean (SE) Mean (SE)Parameter N Median (min; max) N Median (min; max) N Median (min; max)MCP-1 (pg/mL) Baseline value 55 128 (8.3) 54 153 (8.4) 28 139 (19.2) 110(57; 337) 137 (68; 393) 122 (57; 608) Changes from baseline 48 493(46.2)* 44 753 (50.2)* 21 −44 (24.1) at Week 24 429 (184; 2352) 695 (48;1557) −17 (−471; 77) Changes from baseline 41 636 (63.8)* 39 900 (90.9)*18 4.2 (29.49) at Week 48 523 (220; 2616) 756 (121; 3259) 33.6 (−437;175) sCD14 (×10⁶ pg/mL) (original values) Baseline value 55 1.80 (0.062)54 1.88 (0.069) 28 2.00 (0.105) 1.73 (1.07; 3.77) 1.86 (1.05; 3.76) 2.02(0.93; 3.95) Changes from baseline 48 −0.19 (0.064)* 44 −0.23 (0.066)*21 0.23 (0.143) at Week 24 −0.18 (−1.33; 0.95) −0.19 (−1.78; 0.80) 0.13(−1.60; 1.33) Changes from baseline 41 0.10 (0.070)* 39 −0.04 (0.081)*18 0.64 (0.178) at Week 48 0.10 (−0.63; 1.96) −0.04 (−1.24; 1.15) 0.46(−0.50; 2.51) hs-CRP (mg/dL) Baseline value 57 0.39 (0.128) 54 0.46(0.149) 28 0.81 (0.374) 0.15 (0.01; 6.48) 0.15 (0.02; 6.81) 0.14 (0.02;9.81) Changes from baseline 52 −0.16 (0.121) 49 −0.04 (0.138) 21 −0.46(0.529) at Week 24 −0.03 (−6.07; 0.86) −0.04 (−4.03; 4.72) −0.01 (−9.26;4.12) Changes from baseline 44 −0.08 (0.161) 40 −0.18 (0.114) 20 −0.71(0.484) at Week 48 −0.01 (−6.22; 2.72) −0.04 (−4.13; 0.67) −0.03 (−8.93;0.17) IL-6 (pg/mL) Baseline value 57 2.51 (0.306) 52 3.34 (0.561) 2813.81 (9.418) 1.90 (1.90; 18.00) 1.90 (1.90; 21.50) 1.90 (1.90; 264.00)Changes from baseline 52 0.42 (0.375) 47 0.81 (0.877) 21 −8.72 (7.518)at Week 24 0.00 (−4.80; 12.80) 0.00 (−12.10; 33.80) 0.00 (−149.00;29.70) Changes from baseline 44 0.29 (0.362) 38 −0.04 (0.471) 20 −13.11(10.320) at Week 48 0.00 (−5.20; 10.90) 0.00 (−12.10; 7.70) 0.00(−204.10; 5.00) D-dimer (ng/mL) Baseline value 56 187 (21.1) 54 184(19.0) 27 163 (19.0) 150 (49; 800) 125 (49; 750) 150 (49; 450) Changesfrom baseline 51 −32 (25.4) 49 −64 (16.2) 20 −53 (24.7) at Week 24 −1.0(−550; 801) −50 (−500; 100) −26 (−350; 150) Changes from baseline 42 −41(23.1) 40 −70 (21.3) 19 −34 (25.7) at Week 48 −1.0 (−650; 250) −50(−701; 100) 0.0 (−300; 150) Fibrinogen (mg/dL) Baseline value 55 236(6.7) 54 248 (8.6) 28 258 (16.9) 229 (134; 409) 260 (86; 429) 245 (139;510) Changes from baseline 50 −3 (8.0) 49 −7 (11.7) 21 −28 (19.0) atWeek 24 −14 (−121; 198) −8 (−187; 231) −31 (−227; 174) Changes frombaseline 41 11 (10.2)# 40 −10 (8.8)# 20 −30 (15.9) at Week 48 15 (−127;186) −13 (−103; 140) −22 (−164; 109) N = number of subjects. Note:Baseline was defined as the last non-missing assessment prior toinitiation of study treatment. *Pairwise comparisons with the EFV arm,using LSMeans based on an ANCOVA model with factors for treatment,baseline, and HIV-1 RNA at Baseline, showed p-values <0.001.#Differences between treatment arms, as assessed with a van Elteren testcontrolling for baseline HIV-1 RNA, is statistically significant(p-value: 0.048).

A dose-response was observed with CVC in increases over time of MCP-1, aligand of CCR2, while MCP-1 remained at baseline values in the EFV arm(see FIG. 38). The differences in changes from baseline of plasma MCP-1between the EFV and CVC 100 mg and CVC 200 mg treatment arms werestatistically significant (p<0.001) at Week 24 and Week 48 (see Table22).

In addition, a decrease over 48 weeks of treatment was observed forsCD14 (linear mixed-model analysis of repeat sCD14 analysis, see below)in both CVC treatment arms, while an increase was observed for sCD14 inthe EFV arm during the same observation period (see FIG. 39). SolubleCD14 is a biomarker of monocyte activation and has been independentlyassociated with morbidity and mortality in large, long-term cohortstudies in HIV-infected patients and with worse clinical outcomes inpatients with chronic viral hepatitis and patients with severe hepaticfibrosis.

The sCD14 samples were originally analyzed in 2 separate batches: Batch1 included samples leading up to the Week 24 primary analysis and Batch2 included Week 32 and Week 48 (end of study) samples. Results forchanges in sCD14 from baseline from the 2-batch analysis are presentedin Table 22. A repeat analysis of archived samples all analyzed in onebatch was conducted for consistency in analysis across time points. Tocontrol for the effects of covariates, a linear mixed-modelrepeated-measures analysis was conducted on the changes from baseline insCD14 (analysis dated September 2013). With the exception of changesfrom baseline to Week 32 in the CVC 200 mg arm, reductions in sCD14levels observed with CVC at both doses (100 and 200 mg) over 48 weeks oftreatment (LS means) were statistically significant compared toincreases observed with EFV (p<0.05) (see Table 23 and FIG. 39).

TABLE 23 CVC 100 mg CVC 200 mg EFV 600 mg Mean (SE) Mean (SE) Mean (SE)Parameter N Median (min; max) N Median (min; max) N Median (min; max)Original values: sCD14 (×10⁶ pg/mL) Week 48 Final Analysis (June 2013)Baseline value 55 1.80 (0.062 54 1.88 (0.069) 28 2.00 (0.105) 1.73(1.07; 3.77)) 1.86 (1.05; 3.76) 2.02 (0.93; 3.95) Changes from baselineat 51 −0.14 (0.0.54)* 50 −0.23 (0.070)* 22 0.09 (0.160) Week 12 −0.16(−1.14; 0.95) −0.21 (−2.39; 0.83) 0.18 (−1.45; 1.61) Changes frombaseline at 48 −0.19 (0.0.64)* 44 −0.23 (0.066)* 21 0.23 (0.143) Week 24−0.18 (−1.33; 0.95) −0.19 (−1.78; 0.80) 0.13 (−1.60; 1.33) Changes frombaseline at 44 0.11 (0.072)# 43 0.02 (0.084)* 19 0.48 (0.186) Week 320.12 (−0.68; 1.39) −0.02 (−1.53; 1.00) 0.17 (−0.97; 2.18) Changes frombaseline at 41 0.10 (0.070)* 39 −0.04 (0.081)* 18 0.65 (0.178) Week 480.10 (−0.63; 1.96) −0.04 (−1.24; 1.15) 0.46 (−0.50; 2.51)

Changes in other biomarkers of inflammation (hs-CRP, IL-6, D-dimer) weresimilar in the CVC and EFV treatment groups.

APRI and FIB-4 Scores

Furthermore, in post-hoc analyses of data from this study that enrolledsubjects with no apparent liver disease according to stringenteligibility criteria (HIV-1 infection and without ALT/AST Grade ≥2,total bilirubin >ULN, HBV and/or HCV, active or chronic liver disease,cirrhosis or BMI >35 kg/m2), improvements in AST-to-platelet ratio index(APRI) and noninvasive hepatic fibrosis index score combining standardbiochemical values, platelets, ALT, AST, and age (FIB-4) scores wereobserved over time in ≥10% of all CVC-treated subjects (pooled data forCVC 100 mg and 200 mg) (FIG. 40). In the EFV arm, 5% of subjects at Week24 and 6% of subjects at Week 48 had a decrease in APRI score by onecategory from baseline; no subject treated with EFV decreased in FIB-4score by one category where all subjects had scores <1.45 at baseline.

As mentioned above, in this study, CVC also had a significant effect onsCD14, an important marker of monocyte activation. In the same post-hocanalyses described above, statistically significant correlations wereobserved between changes in FIB-4 score and sCD14 levels in CVC-treatedsubjects at Week 24, and between changes in APRI and FIB-4 scores andsCD14 levels at Week 48. The Week 48 results are shown in FIG. 41 andFIG. 42.

No indication of inflammation was seen in clinical pathology parametersor in any tissue, including the liver, by microscopic evaluation at thehigh dose of 1000 mg/kg/day where plasma MCP-1 levels in the chronic (3-and 9-month) monkey toxicity studies were ˜5-fold over controls.

In fact, anti-fibrotic effects of CVC at the 100 mg/kg/day dose observedin the mouse model of NASH were seen in conjunction with significantlyincreased plasma MCP-1 levels. In addition, improvements in APRI andFIB-4 fibrosis index scores observed in CVC-treated subjects over 48weeks occurred despite significant and sustained MCP-1 elevations. Alsoin this study, CVC was generally well tolerated in 115 subjects treatedwith CVC 100 mg and 200 mg for up to 48 weeks.

Changes in NAS and in hepatic fibrosis stage (NASH CRN system and Ishak)at Year 1 and 2 will be assessed by histology. Changes in morphometricquantitative assessment of collagen on liver biopsy will also beassessed. Correlations between efficacy endpoints and MCP-1 plasmalevels will be evaluated to determine whether or not prolonged MCP-1increases observed with CVC treatment pose a potential risk in subjectswith liver fibrosis due to NASH.

Example 16: Biomarkers of Inflammation and Immune Function

A dose-response was observed with CVC in increases over time of MCP-1,the ligand of CCR2, which is a chemokine receptor found on monocytes,while MCP-1 remained at baseline values in the EFV arm. The differencesin changes from baseline of plasma MCP-1 between the EFV and CVC 100 mgand CVC 200 mg treatment arms were statistically significant (p<0.001)at Week 24 and Week 48, suggesting potent and dose-dependent CCR2blockade by CVC. Furthermore, a decrease over the first 24 weeks wasobserved for sCD14, a biomarker of monocyte activation and anindependent predictor of mortality in HIV infection, in both CVCtreatment arms, while an increase was observed for sCD14 in the EFV armduring the same observation period. Between Weeks 24 and 48, sCD14levels returned to baseline values in CVC-treated subjects whereas theycontinued to rise in EFV-treated subjects. The differences in changesfrom baseline between the CVC arms and the EFV arm were statisticallysignificant (p<0.001) at Week 24 and Week 48 and also at Week 48 in arepeat analysis. These results indicate a potential effect of CVC ondecreasing monocyte activation.

No meaningful differences between the treatment arms were observed inchanges from Baseline in other inflammation biomarkers (hs-CRP,fibrinogen, IL-6, and D-dimer) and biomarkers of immune function (totalCD38+ expression and total HLA DR+ expression on CD4+ T cells or on CD8+T cells).

Example 17: Study of CVC to Evaluate Hepatic Histological Improvement inNASH

Based on the nonclinical and clinical data indicating that CVC hasanti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic activity and is generally welltolerated, Tobira plans to investigate CVC in a Phase 2 study insubjects with hepatic fibrosis due to NASH. This Phase 2 study willevaluate the efficacy of CVC for the treatment of NASH in adult subjectswith liver fibrosis who are at risk of disease progression due to thepresence of at least one contributing factor, including type 2 diabetesmellitus (T2DM), high body mass index (BMI) (>25 kg/m2) with at least 1criterion of the metabolic syndrome (MS) as defined by the NationalCholesterol Education Program (NCEP), bridging fibrosis, and/or definiteNASH (NAS≥5).

The Phase 2 study is designed to evaluate the potential of CVC to treatthis serious condition and to address the significant unmet medical needof patients with hepatic fibrosis due to NASH. This study is arandomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study designed to evaluatethe efficacy and safety of CVC 150 mg when compared to placebo insubjects with hepatic fibrosis due to NASH. The study populationconsists of subjects with liver fibrosis (NASH Clinical Research Network[CRN] Stage 1-3) due to NASH (NAS ≥4) at risk of disease progression.

A dose of CVC 150 mg (DP7 formulation) will be evaluated for thetreatment of NASH in subjects with liver fibrosis in Study 652-2-203based on the following considerations:

CVC is expected to provide both anti-inflammatory and anti-fibroticactivity, primarily due to its antagonism of CCR2 and CCR5 co-receptorsand the resulting effects on recruitment, migration and infiltration ofpro-inflammatory monocytes to the site of liver injury. Therefore, aprimary consideration for selecting a dose for use in this study is toensure that CVC plasma exposures are sufficient to provide near maximalantagonism of CCR2 and CCR5.

CCR2 and CCR5 antagonism by CVC have been evaluated in in vitro and exvivo studies and in 2 clinical studies of CVC in the treatment of HIV-1infection (Phase 2a Study 652-2-201 and Phase 2b Study 652-2-202). Ineach case, potent and concentration-dependent antagonism of CCR2 andCCR5 was observed. Clinical evidence of CCR2 and CCR5 antagonism wasestablished by measuring changes from baseline in plasma MCP-1 (a ligandof CCR2) concentrations and changes in plasma HIV-RNA (CCR5 co-receptorrequired for HIV entry), respectively, in these 2 Phase 2 Studies.

In Study 652-2-202, doses of CVC 100 mg and CVC 200 mg (DP6 formulation)were evaluated in 115 HIV-1 infected subjects for up to 48 weeks (mean[SE] duration of CVC intake: 41.1 [1.33] weeks) and were found to beeffective and well tolerated in the treatment of HIV infection. Based onexposure-response analyses, which showed that increasing CVC plasmaconcentrations correlated with an improved virologic outcome, CVC 200 mgwas considered an appropriate dose for further evaluation of CVC as anantiviral agent for the treatment of HIV infection in Phase 3 studies.

CVC plasma exposures, however, appear to be higher in non-HIV infectedhealthy volunteer subjects as compared to HIV-infected subjects when CVCis administered under the same dosing conditions (Studies 652-1-111,652-1-110, 652-2-202). A dose of CVC 150 mg will be evaluated for thetreatment of NASH in subjects with liver fibrosis in Study 652 2 203.Based on the referenced available data, this dose is considered to be ina therapeutically relevant range and is expected to provide exposures insubjects with NASH and liver fibrosis that are comparable to those ofCVC 200 mg, which was evaluated in Study 652-2-202 and found to resultin potent CCR2 and CCR5 antagonism.

A total of 250 subjects (125 subjects per treatment arm) are planned,and total study treatment duration will be 2 years. The study populationwill include subjects with NASH (NAS ≥4) and liver fibrosis (Stages 1 to3 [NASH CRN system]) who are at increased risk of disease progressiondue to the presence of ≥1 contributing factor(s):

Documented Evidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

High BMI (>25 kg/m2) with at least 1 of the following criteria of themetabolic syndrome, as defined by the NCEP:

Central obesity: waist circumference ≥102 cm or 40 inches (male), ≥88 cmor 35 inches (female)

Dyslipidemia: TG ≥1.7 mmol/L (150 mg/dL)

Dyslipidemia: HDL-cholesterol <40 mg/dL (male), <50 mg/dL (female)

Blood pressure ≥130/85 mmHg (or treated for hypertension)

Fasting plasma glucose ≥6.1 mmol/L (110 mg/dL); or

Bridging fibrosis (NASH CRN Stage 3) and/or definite NASH (NAS ≥5).

There will be 2 treatment periods. Treatment Period 1 will consist ofdouble-blind randomized treatment (CVC 150 mg or matching placebo) for 1year. Subjects and investigators will remain blinded to treatmentassignment during Period 1. During Treatment Period 2, subjectsoriginally randomized to CVC 150 mg will continue to receive thattreatment for an additional year, and subjects originally randomized toplacebo will cross over from placebo to CVC 150 mg.

Subjects will receive study drug, once daily (QD), for 2 years. Thestudy will comprise 2 treatment periods: Treatment Period 1 (first year)and Treatment Period 2 (second year). Eligible subjects will be assignedto receive CVC (n=126) or matching placebo (n=126) during the first yearof treatment (Treatment Period 1). For Treatment Period 2, half of theplacebo-treated subjects (randomized at Baseline) will cross-over to CVCand the other half will remain on placebo for the second year oftreatment. At Baseline (Day 1), following Screening evaluations,eligible subjects will be assigned to the treatment arms using permutedblock randomization stratified by NAS at Screening (4 or ≥5) andfibrosis stage (≤2 or >2). Eligible subjects will be randomized in a2:1:1 ratio to one of the following 3 treatment arms as shown in FIG.24.

TABLE 24 Arm N Treatment Period 1 Treatment Period 2 A 126 CVC 150 mg,QD CVC 150 mg, QD B 63 Matching placebo, QD CVC 150 mg, QD C 63 Matchingplacebo, QD Matching placebo, QD

CVC and matching placebo will be administered as double-blinded studydrug. Study drug (CVC/matching placebo) should be taken every morningwith food.

The primary endpoint (Year 1) biopsy must be performed within 1 monthprior to the end of Treatment Period 1 before starting Treatment Period2. The final (Year 2) biopsy must be performed within 1 month prior toend of treatment with study drug.

Enrollment will be initiated at a limited number of sites until up to 20subjects have been randomized and treated and safety data have beenreviewed by the Data Monitoring Committee (DMC). The first DMC reviewwill occur within 3 months of the first subject enrolled or, when up to20 subjects have been randomized and at least 10 subjects have beentreated for 1 month, whichever comes first. Subsequent enrollment of theremainder of study subjects will occur once the DMC has evaluated thesafety data for these first 10-20 subjects and has determined that thestudy may continue.

During Treatment Period 1, all subjects will undergo safety assessmentsat Weeks 2 and 4 of Month 1. In addition, the first 20 subjects willundergo safety assessments at Weeks 1 and 3 of Month 1. All subjectswill undergo study visit assessments every 2 weeks during Month 2,monthly visits during Months 3 to 6, and at Months 8, 10, and 12. DuringTreatment Period 2, subjects will undergo monthly visits during Months13 to 15, and at Months 18, 21 and 24.

Key Assessments

During the study:

Liver biopsies will be taken at Screening, at the primary endpoint (Year1: within 1 month prior to end of Treatment Period 1 and before startingTreatment Period 2), and at Year 2 (within 1 month prior to end oftreatment)

Pro-inflammatory cytokines, biomarkers of inflammation, biomarkers ofhepatocyte apoptosis, biomarkers of bacterial translocation, fastingmetabolic parameters, renal parameters, and eGFR will be measured atBaseline and Months 3, 6, 12, 15, 18, and 24.

At sites where available, assessment of non invasive liver imaging(e.g., ultrasound transient elastography [TE], two-dimensional magneticresonance elastography [MRE], acoustic radiation force impulse [ARFI])will be performed at Baseline and at Months 6, 12, 18, and 24.

Pharmacokinetic samples for CVC will be collected at Baseline (pre-dosesample just before starting treatment), at Months 0.5, 3 and 15(pre-dose and at least 1 hour post-dose), and at Months 6, 12, 18 and 24(pre-dose).

Weight, waist circumference, hip circumference, arm circumference, andtricep skinfold will be performed at Baseline and at Months 3, 6, 12,15, 18, and 24. Height will be performed at Screening and Month 12.

Physical examinations and laboratory analyses will be performed at eachvisit. ECGs will be performed at Baseline and at Months 3, 6, 12, 15,18, and 24.

Adverse events and concomitant medications will be assessed at eachvisit.

The informed consent and patient education materials about NASH, liverfibrosis, and liver biopsy procedures will be reviewed at the screeningvisit.

Study drug diaries will be provided to each subject at the same timethat study drug is dispensed. The diary will be reviewed at allOn-treatment Visits and the Early Discontinuation Visit.

Subjects will return to the clinic 1 month after receiving their lasttreatment for an end of study follow-up evaluation.

The primary efficacy objective of the study will be to evaluate hepatichistological improvement in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)activity score (NAS) at Year 1 relative to screening biopsy, defined bya minimum 2-point improvement in NAS with at least a 1-point improvementin more than 1 category and no concurrent worsening of fibrosis stage(with worsening defined as progression to bridging fibrosis orcirrhosis).

Secondary efficacy objectives include evaluation of the resolution ofNASH with no concurrent worsening of fibrosis stage (worsening definedas progression to bridging fibrosis or cirrhosis) at Year 2; theresolution of NASH with no concurrent worsening of fibrosis stage(worsening defined as progression to bridging fibrosis or cirrhosis) atYear 1; the safety and tolerability of CVC over 1 and 2 years oftreatment of NASH in adult subjects with liver fibrosis;characterization of the plasma PK of CVC in a population PK analysis;evaluation of the hepatic histological improvement in NAS at Year 2,defined by a minimum 2-point improvement in NAS with at least a 1-pointimprovement in more than 1 category and with no concurrent worsening offibrosis stage (worsening defined as progression to bridging fibrosis orcirrhosis); evaluation of the efficacy of CVC versus placebo in adultsubjects with liver fibrosis as determined by change in morphometricquantitative collagen on liver biopsy at Years 1 and 2; evaluation ofthe change in histologic fibrosis stage (nonalcoholic steatohepatitisclinical research network [NASH CRN] system and Ishak) at Years 1 and 2;evaluation of the change from in hepatic tissue fibrogenic protein(alpha-smooth muscle actin [α-SMA]) at Years 1 and 2; evaluation of thechange from Baseline in noninvasive hepatic fibrosis markers (APRI,FIB-4, hyaluronic acid, FibroTest (FibroSure), NAFLD fibrosis score[NFS] and enhanced liver fibrosis test [ELF]) at Months 3, 6, 12, 15,18, and 24; evaluation of the change from Baseline in biomarkers ofhepatocyte apoptosis at Years 1 and 2; evaluation of the change fromBaseline in liver parameters and fasting metabolic parameters at Months3, 6, 12, 15, 18, and 24; evaluation of the change from Baseline inweight, BMI, waist circumference, waist-hip ratio, arm circumference,and tricep skinfold at Months 3, 6, 12, 15, 18, and 24.

Tertiary Objectives include evaluation of the change from Baseline innon-invasive liver imaging method (e.g., ultrasound transientelastography [TE], 2-dimensional magnetic resonance elastography [MRE],acoustic radiation force impulse [ARFI]) at Months 6, 12, 18, and 24 (atsites where available); the change from Baseline in pro-inflammatorycytokines and biomarkers of inflammation at Months 3, 6, 12, 15, 18, and24; the change from Baseline in estimated glomerular filtration rate(eGFR) and in renal parameters at Months 3, 6, 12, 15, 18, and 24; andthe change from Baseline in biomarkers associated with bacterialtranslocation at Months 3, 6, 12, 15, 18, and 24.

Example 18: Evaluation of CVC Combination Therapy in the Treatment ofFibrosis

This non-clinical study aims to evaluate treatment with CVC alone or incombination with an FXR agonist or a PPAR-α and −δ agonist in thetreatment of fibrosis. Briefly, CVC will be administered either alone(22 weeks, 8 weeks, and 4 weeks) or in combination either the FXRagonist or PPAR-α agonist simultaneously for four weeks. This study willbe performed in a CDAA mouse model of NASH. FIG. 43 shows the differenttreatment groups that will be used in this study.

The primary objective is to compare the treatment of wild type mice withvehicle control or CVC vs. CCR2−/− mice (standard chow vs. CDAA diet,administered over 22 weeks).

The Secondary objectives will be studied in the mice receiving CDAA dietonly. We will compare 22 weeks of treatment of CVC with 8-week treatment(Weeks 14 to 22) and 4-week treatment (Weeks 18-22). Further, we willcompare 4 weeks of treatment with (Week 18 to 22) of treatment with CVCalone vs. FXR agonist alone vs. PPAR-α and -δ alone vs. CVC and a FXRagonist (GW 4064) vs. CVC and a PPAR-α agonist (GW7647).

The detailed description herein describes various aspects andembodiments of the invention, however, unless otherwise specified, noneof those are intended to be limiting. Indeed, a person of skill in theart, having read this disclosure, will envision variations, alterations,and adjustments that can be made without departing from the scope andspirit of the invention, all of which should be considered to be part ofthe invention unless otherwise specified. Applicants thus envision thatthe invention described herein will be limited only by the appendedclaims.

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1-40. (canceled)
 41. A method of treating fibrosis or a fibrotic diseaseor condition or condition in a subject in need thereof comprisingco-administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount ofcenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof; and one or more additionalactive agents.
 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the additional activeagent is selected from the group consisting of a GLP-1 receptor agonist,a SGLT2 inhibitor, a DPP-4 inhibitor, an inhibitor of Toll-Like Receptor4 signaling, an anti-TGFβ antibody, a thiazolidinedione, a PPAR subtypesα and γ agonist, a farnesoid X receptor agonist, and an oral insulinsensitizer.
 43. The method of claim 41, wherein the additional activeagent is selected from the group consisting of liraglutide,canagliflozin, anagliptin, TAK-242, 1D11, MSDC-0602, pioglitazone,obeticholic acid (OCA), and rosiglitazone.
 44. The method of claim 41,wherein the fibrosis or fibrotic disease or condition is liver fibrosisor renal fibrosis.
 45. The method of claim 41, wherein the cenicrivirocor a salt or solvate thereof is formulated as a pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising cenicriviroc or a salt or solvate thereof andfumaric acid.
 46. The method of claim 44, wherein the liver fibrosis isassociated with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), non-alcoholicfatty liver disease (NAFLD), emerging cirrhosis, or non-cirrhotichepatic fibrosis.
 47. The method of claim 41, wherein the subject has adisease or condition selected from the group consisting of alcoholicliver disease, HIV and HCV co-infection, viral hepatitis (such as HBV orHCV infection), type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM, metabolic syndrome (MS),and a combination thereof.
 48. A method of treating NASH in a subject inneed thereof comprising co-administering to the subject atherapeutically effective amount of cenicriviroc, or a salt or solvatethereof; wherein the NASH is associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus(T2DM), metabolic syndrome (MS), or HIV and HCV co-infection; and one ormore additional active agents.
 49. The method of claim 48, wherein theadditional active agent is selected from the group consisting of a GLP-1receptor agonist, a SGLT2 inhibitor, a DPP-4 inhibitor, an inhibitor ofToll-Like Receptor 4 signaling, an anti-TGFβ antibody, athiazolidinedione, a PPAR subtypes α and γ agonist, a farnesoid Xreceptor agonist, and an oral insulin sensitizer.
 50. The method ofclaim 48, wherein the additional active agent is selected from the groupconsisting of liraglutide, eanagliflozin, anagliptin, TAK-242, 1D11,MSDC-0602, pioglitazone, obeticholic acid (OCA), and rosiglitazone. 51.The method of claim 48, wherein the cenicriviroc or salt or solvatethereof is administered once per day or twice per day, for one or moretreatment cycles, or for 1 to 24 treatment cycles.
 52. The method ofclaim 48, wherein the co-administration comprises simultaneousadministration, sequential administration, overlapping administration,interval administration, continuous administration, or a combinationthereof.
 53. The method of claim 51, wherein each of the treatment cyclecomprises about 7 or more days.
 54. The method of claim 48, wherein theco-administration comprises oral administration, parenteraladministration, or a combination thereof.
 55. The method of claim 54,wherein the parenteral administration comprises intravenousadministration, intraarterial administration, intramuscularadministration, subcutaneous administration, intraosseousadministration, intrathecal administration, or a combination thereof.56. The method of claim 48, comprising detecting a level of one or morebiological molecules in the subject treated for fibrosis or the fibroticdisease or condition or condition, and determining a treatment regimenbased on an increase or decrease in the level of one or more biologicalmolecules, wherein the biological molecule is selected from the groupconsisting of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), LPs-binding protein (LBP), 16SrDNA, sCD14, intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP), zonulin-1,Collagen 1a1 and 3a1, TGF-β, fibronectin-1, hs-CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-33,fibrinogen, MCP-1, MIP-1α and -1β, RANTES, sCD163, TGF-β, TNF-a, abiomarker of hepatocyte apoptosis such as CK-18 (caspase-cleaved andtotal), and a combination thereof.
 57. The method of claim 48,comprising detecting a level of one or biological molecules in thesubject treated for fibrosis or the fibrotic disease or condition orcondition, wherein an increase or decrease in the level of one or morebiological molecules compared to a predetermined standard level ispredictive of the treatment efficacy of fibrosis or the fibrotic diseaseor condition, wherein the biological molecule is selected from the groupconsisting of lipopoly saccharide (LPS), LPs-binding protein (LBP), 16SrDNA, sCD14, intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP), zonulin-1,Collagen 1a1 and 3a1, TGF-β, fibronectin-1, hs-CRP, IL-Iβ, IL-6, IL-33,fibrinogen, MCP-1, MIP-1α and -1β, RANTES, sCD163, TGF-β, TNF-α, abiomarker of hepatocyte apoptosis such as CK-18 (caspase-cleaved andtotal), and a combination thereof.
 58. The method of claim 56, whereinthe one or more biological molecules are measured in a biological samplefrom a subject treated for fibrosis or the fibrotic disease orcondition; wherein the biological sample is selected from blood, skin,hair follicles, saliva, oral mucous, vaginal mucous, sweat, tears,epithelial tissues, urine, semen, seminal fluid, seminal plasma,prostatic fluid, pre-ejaculatory fluid (Cowper's fluid), excreta,biopsy, ascites, cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, brain, and tissue extractsample or biopsy sample.
 59. The method of claim 57, wherein the one ormore biological molecules are measured in a biological sample from asubject treated for fibrosis or the fibrotic disease or condition;wherein the biological sample is selected from blood, skin, hairfollicles, saliva, oral mucous, vaginal mucous, sweat, tears, epithelialtissues, urine, semen, seminal fluid, seminal plasma, prostatic fluid,pre-ejaculatory fluid (Cowper's fluid), excreta, biopsy, ascites,cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, brain, and tissue extract sample or biopsysample.
 60. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeuticallyeffective amount of cenicriviroc, or a salt or solvate thereof, one ormore additional active agents, and one or more pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipients, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipientcomprises fumaric acid.